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EPISODE THREE | CHRISTIANITY
EPISODE THREE | CHRISTIANITY
Night settles over a Judean hillside. Shepherds doze beside glowing embers, unaware that history’s hinge is about to swing. In distant Rome, Augustus tallies subjects for taxation; in Jerusalem, priests debate purity laws; in Alexandria, philosophers analyze stars. But none suspect that an itinerant carpenter’s son from Galilee will ignite a movement that will split empires, reshape calendars, and etch a cross on half the world.
Welcome to Episode 3 of The World’s Religions. Tonight we trace Christianity’s winding path—from the parables of Jesus to the thunder of cathedral bells, from secret catacombs to global megachurches. Part 1 guides us through five crucibles:
Jesus of Nazareth: Revolutionary Teacher or Divine Savior?
The Gospels and Paul’s Transformative Theology
Persecution, Martyrs, and the Birth of a Counter‑Culture
Councils, Creeds, and the Architecture of Orthodoxy
From Constantine to Chalcedon: Unity Tested by Empire
Fasten your sandals; the road to Golgotha runs further than we think.
We set our scene in Roman‑occupied Judea circa 4 BCE–30 CE:
Political Tension – Herod the Great’s dynasty juggles Rome’s taxation with local revolt.
Religious Mosaic – Pharisees emphasize oral law; Sadducees guard the Temple cult; Essenes retreat to desert purity; Zealots simmer with insurgent zeal.
Apocalyptic Expectation – Prophets like John the Baptist thunder judgment; many await a mashiach (messiah) to topple oppressors.
Into this ferment steps Jesus of Nazareth.
Sources: the canonical Gospels (Mark c. 70 CE; Matthew & Luke 80–90 CE; John 90–100 CE), Paul’s letters (50s CE), and non‑canonical texts (Thomas, Tacitus, Josephus).
Key elements:
Teaching – Parables of the mustard seed, prodigal son, good Samaritan reconfigure kingdom values: “Blessed are the poor.”
Miracles – Healings, exorcisms, nature control (storm calmed, loaves multiplied) signify divine authority.
Table Fellowship – Eating with tax collectors and sinners breaches purity codes, signaling inclusive grace.
Twelve Disciples – Symbolic of Israel’s tribes; women followers (Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna) bankroll mission.
At Passover, Jesus enters Jerusalem. Overturning money‑changers in the Temple courts challenges priestly commerce. Roman prefect Pontius Pilate fears unrest; Sanhedrin fears blasphemy. Charges: claiming Messiah and King of the Jews. Sentence: crucifixion—Rome’s brutal deterrent for rebels.
Followers allege empty tomb sightings; appearances to Peter (Cephas), Mary Magdalene, Thomas, and >500 (1 Cor 15). Resurrection transforms a scattered band into preaching witnesses. Creedal kernel emerges within months:
“Christ died for our sins … was buried … was raised on the third day.”
Rabbi – Teacher.
Prophet – In Elijah’s mold.
Messiah/Christos – Anointed liberator.
Kyrios (Lord) – Divine sovereignty (echoing YHWH in Septuagint).
Son of God – Unique filial intimacy, later doctrinal cornerstone.
Mark – Earliest, urgent, “immediately” pacing; Messianic Secret conceals identity until cross.
Matthew – Judaic lens; five teaching blocks mirror Torah; genealogy traces to Abraham.
Luke – Gentile physician; themes of compassion, marginalized uplift; Acts sequel charts mission.
John – Mystical Logos prologue; “I Am” sayings; high Christology.
Why four? Early church embraced multiple witnesses to curb single‑author bias and to adapt for diverse audiences.
Born Saul of Tarsus (c. 5 CE), Pharisee zealous against “The Way.” Damascus road vision (c. 34–36 CE) of risen Christ flips allegiance.
Key letters:
Galatians – Salvation by grace, not Torah works.
Romans – Universal sin, justification, new Adam.
1 Corinthians 15 – Longest resurrection defense.
Philippians 2 – “Christ hymn” describes kenosis (self‑emptying).
Paul’s Three Pillars:
Cruciform Gospel – Weakness as power.
Justification by Faith – Legal acquittal through Christ’s fidelity.
New Creation – Jew and Gentile fused into body of Christ.
Paul’s journeys:
First (46–48 CE) – Cyprus, Pisidian Antioch.
Second (49–52) – Philippi (first European church), Thessalonica, Corinth.
Third (53–58) – Ephesus riot, collection for Jerusalem poor.
Fourth (unproven) – Possibly Spain.
House churches multiply along Roman roads, facilitated by Pax Romana, Koine Greek lingua franca, and Jewish diaspora synagogues as preaching outposts.
64 CE – Nero blames Christians for Rome’s fire; tradition says Peter crucified upside‑down, Paul beheaded.
98–117 – Trajan endorses Pliny’s policy: interrogate, but no hunt; refusal to worship Caesar punishable by death.
250 CE – Decian edict mandates universal sacrifice; libelli certificates prove compliance.
303–311 – Diocletian’s Great Persecution: scriptures burned, clergy jailed, martyrdom peaks until Edict of Toleration (Galerius).
Greek martys = witness. Martyrs emulate Christ’s passion, believed to receive immediate heaven. Acts of Perpetua and Felicity (203 CE) depict visions of victory; martyr feasts crowd calendar, inspiring courage.
Rome’s catacombs host burial niches (loculi), frescoes of Jonah, Good Shepherd—hope motifs. Yet Christians above ground run businesses, serve in army occasionally; persecution sporadic, not constant, but identity forged in readiness to suffer.
Second‑century writers—Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen—argue:
Christianity fulfills Hebrew prophecy.
Logically consistent with philosophy (Justin’s Logos).
Morally superior (rescuing infants vs. Roman exposure).
Divergent teachings force doctrinal clarity:
Gnosticism – Spirit‑matter dualism, secret knowledge.
Marcionism – Rejects Hebrew God; canon of Luke + Paul only.
Montanism – New prophecy, ecstatic visions.
Arianism – Christ as first‑born creature, not co‑eternal God.
Nestorianism – Separates Christ’s human/divine personas.
Monophysitism – Christ’s divinity absorbs humanity.
By late 2nd c. Muratorian fragment lists 22 books; Athanasius’s Easter Letter (367 CE) names 27 New Testament books identical to modern canon; confirmed by Carthage Council (397). Criteria: apostolic origin, orthodox teaching, widespread use.
Convoked by Emperor Constantine post‑conversion (Milvian Bridge, 312). Main issue: Arius vs. Athanasius. Result:
Homoousios – Son “of the same substance” with Father.
Nicene Creed – “Begotten, not made.”
Nicaea establishes precedent: ecumenical councils guided by imperial authority craft binding dogma.
Reasserts Nicene faith; adds Holy Spirit clause (“Lord, Giver of Life”) forming Niceno‑Constantinopolitan Creed; condemns Apollinarianism (denial of human mind in Christ).
Debates Theotokos (“God‑bearer”) title for Mary. Cyril of Alexandria wins; Nestorius deposed. Outcome secures hypostatic union (one person).
Defines two natures, one person: “without confusion, change, division, or separation.” Churches rejecting (Miaphysite Coptic, Syrian) become Oriental Orthodox.
Edict of Milan (313) grants legal status, returns property.
Sunday becomes public holiday.
Basilicas (Lateran, Holy Sepulchre) built.
Bishops receive civil authority; wealth flows; clerical hierarchy develops.
While empire Christianizes, ascetics flee:
Anthony of Egypt (251–356) sells goods, battles demons in desert. **Athanasius’s Life popularizes ideal.
Pachomius organizes communal monasteries (cenobitic).
Basil the Great in Cappadocia writes rule emphasizing community, liturgy, service—Eastern model.
In West, Benedict of Nursia (480–547) crafts Rule balancing prayer and labor, birthing Benedictine order.
Monasticism preserves scholarship, offers women convent leadership, and critiques imperial luxury.
Ulfilas translates Bible into Gothic (4th c.).
Patrick evangelizes Ireland (5th c.), birthing Celtic monasticism.
Augustine of Canterbury sent by Pope Gregory I (597) to Anglo‑Saxons.
Christianity thus becomes linguistic transformer, creating alphabets (Glagolitic, Cyrillic) for Slavs later.
Sunset gilds the domes of Constantinople; monks chant vespers; distant hammers ring along Rome’s crumbling walls. The faith born by fishermen now advises emperors, yet dissent smolders like embers beneath marble altars.
In Part 2, we will:
Witness the Great Schism tearing East from West.
Stand with reformers hammering theses and translating Bibles.
Sail with missionaries across oceans and continents.
Explore modern revivals—from Wesley to Azusa Street.
Examine liberation theology, evangelical politics, and Christianity’s shifting center of gravity to the Global South.
Bells toll across a continent: bronze throats in Rome, copper in Kiev, iron in Compostela. Yet under the harmony lurks a dissonant chord—East and West tuning their theology to different keys. The quill of reform scratches parchment, the press of Gutenberg rattles type, and sails billow toward uncharted oceans. The cross, once planted outside Jerusalem’s walls, is about to circle the globe.
We resumed our odyssey where Part 1 paused—Constantinople’s twilight and Rome’s crumbling grandeur—tracking Christianity through schism, reform, conquest, and critique until the turbulent twenty‑first century. Buckle in: the road ahead is paved with councils and conquistadors, revivals and revolutions, martyrs and megachurches.
Long before the formal break, differences sprouted:
Arena
Western (Latin) Church
Eastern (Greek) Church
Language
Latin, legal precision
Koine/Byzantine Greek, philosophical nuance
Authority
Pope as universal primate (Petrine claim)
Collegiality of five patriarchates, primus inter pares
Theology
Filioque—Spirit “proceeds from Father and Son”
Spirit “proceeds from Father” (John 15:26)
Liturgy
Unleavened bread, concise rite
Leavened bread, sensory‑rich Divine Liturgy
Celibacy
Mandatory for priests (after 12th c.)
Married parish clergy permitted
Political sparks—Crowns of Charlemagne (800), Photian controversy (863), Norman incursions into Byzantine Italy—fanned the embers.
Pope Leo IX dispatches Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida to Constantinople, demanding patriarch Michael Cerularius accept Latin customs. Humbert slaps a bull of excommunication on Hagia Sophia’s altar. Cerularius responds in kind. Though many contemporaries shrug, later generations crystalize the incident as the Great Schism.
Two self‑contained theologies mature: Orthodoxy emphasizes theosis (deification), iconostasis, and mystical prayer; Catholicism codifies papal primacy, scholastic method.
Mutual suspicion feeds later tragedies: Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople (1204), widening the gulf.
Attempts at reunion—Lyons (1274), Florence (1439)—collapse under laity backlash.
The Christian oikumene now comprises two lungs breathing the same gospel in different dialects of soul.
Flying buttresses lift stone into light—Chartres, Notre‑Dame, Hagia Sophia’s mosaics restored. Scholastics such as Anselm (“faith seeking understanding”) and Thomas Aquinas (the Summa) wed Aristotle to Augustine, forging intellectual cathedrals.
Pope Urban II’s cry “Deus vult!” rallies knights. Motivations mix: pilgrimage piety, feudal land‑hunger, papal politics. The First Crusade seizes Jerusalem (1099) in bloody frenzy; later crusades falter, culminating in expulsion from Acre (1291). Legacy: interfaith wounds, trade routes, and the military‑monastic orders (Templars, Hospitallers).
French monarchy tugs papacy to Avignon (1309‑77). Catherine of Siena pleads for return to Rome. Post‑return, rival popes in Rome, Avignon—and later Pisa—splinter allegiance (1378‑1417) until Council of Constance restores unity, but faith in curial purity erodes.
John Wycliffe (England) translates Bible into Middle English, denounces transubstantiation; post‑mortem exhumation and burning (1428).
Jan Hus (Bohemia) challenges indulgences, asserts conciliar supremacy; burned at stake (1415). Hus’s followers wage Hussite Wars, anticipating Protestant defiance.
Europe’s boiler hisses—the Reformation looms.
95 Theses nailed (or mailed) to Wittenberg’s Castle Church door, 31 Oct 1517, protesting indulgence trade (Johann Tetzel).
Diet of Worms (1521): “Here I stand.” Outlawed, Luther translates New Testament into vigorous German (1522).
Sola Scriptura, Sola Fide, Sola Gratia—scripture alone, faith alone, grace alone—axe at sacramental economy.
Ulrich Zwingli (Zurich) abolishes images, simplifies Eucharist as memorial.
John Calvin (Geneva) pens Institutes of Christian Religion (1536); doctrine of predestination, consistory discipline. Geneva becomes “Protestant Rome,” training exiles (Knox, Farel) for missions.
Opposing infant baptism, Conrad Grebel re‑baptizes adults (1525). Anabaptists preach separation of church‑state, pacifism (later Mennonites, Amish). At Münster (1534) a militant faction attempts theocratic commune; failure brands movement dangerous, yet seeds modern religious liberty.
Henry VIII seeks annulment; Act of Supremacy (1534) crowns monarch head of Church of England.
Edward VI swings Protestant; Mary I re‑Catholicizes (burning Cranmer); Elizabeth I fashions via media (39 Articles). Puritans agitate for further reform, later founding New England colonies.
Council of Trent (1545‑63) affirms seven sacraments, Vulgate canon, faith‑works synergy, reforms clergy education.
New orders: Jesuits (Ignatius Loyola) vow to Pope, spearhead missions and education; Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross revitalize mysticism.
Baroque art (Caravaggio) dramatizes faith; Gregorian calendar (1582) corrects drift.
German Peasants’ War (1524) crushed; Luther sides with princes.
French Wars of Religion (1562‑98)—Huguenots vs. Catholics; St Bartholomew’s Day massacre (1572).
Thirty Years’ War (1618‑48) devastates Central Europe; Peace of Westphalia seeds nation‑state concept and legal toleration.
1492: Columbus plants cross in Caribbean; conquistadors follow. Franciscans, Dominicans, Jesuits evangelize indigenous peoples—often complicit in colonial rule, yet figures like Bartolomé de las Casas defend native rights.
Our Lady of Guadalupe (1531): Marian apparition in Nahuatl galvanizes syncretic devotion across Mexico.
Francis Xavier reaches Goa (1542), Japan (1549).
Matteo Ricci (China, 1582) dons Confucian robes, mastering Mandarin; “rites controversy” over ancestor veneration splits orders, leading to papal ban (1704) and Chinese expulsion (1724).
Roberto de Nobili in India (1605) adopts Brahmin customs, translating liturgy into Tamil, pioneering inculturation.
Pietism and Moravian Brethren send globe‑trotting evangelists (Greenland, Caribbean).
London Missionary Society (1795) dispatches David Livingstone to Africa, Hudson Taylor’s China Inland Mission (1865) penetrates interior.
American Board plants seminaries in Ottoman Syria, birthing modern Near Eastern Protestant churches.
First Great Awakening (1730s‑40s): Jonathan Edwards, George Whitefield igniting colonies, stressing personal conversion.
Second Awakening (1800‑30): Camp‑meetings on American frontier; Charles Finney promotes abolition, temperance.
Methodism (John & Charles Wesley) rides circuit; by 1900 over twenty million adherents worldwide.
Missions often shadow empire; yet indigenous agency rises: Samuel Ajayi Crowther (Nigeria) becomes first African Anglican bishop (1864); Pandita Ramabai pioneers Indian Christian feminism; Nez Perce convert Hinmatóowyalahtq̓it (Chief Joseph) blends gospel with tribal identity.
Phoebe Palmer’s Tuesday Meetings (1840s) preach “second blessing” sanctification.
Azusa Street Revival (Los Angeles, 1906) under William J. Seymour—interracial, ecstatic tongues—births Pentecostalism, later Assemblies of God, Church of God in Christ.
Charismatic Renewal (1960s) spreads Pentecostal gifts into Catholic and mainline churches—bearing guitar Masses and praise choruses.
Darwin’s Origin (1859), Higher Criticism of Scripture (Wellhausen) spark crisis.
The Fundamentals (1910‑15) articulate inerrancy, virgin birth, substitutionary atonement, bodily resurrection, miracles.
Scopes Trial (1925) theatrically pits Bible against evolution.
Fundamentalists retreat to Bible colleges; neo‑evangelicals (Billy Graham) re‑engage culture mid‑20th c.
Pope John XXIII opens windows: vernacular Mass, laity empowerment, ecumenism (Unitatis Redintegratio), affirming religious liberty (Dignitatis Humanae), repudiating Jew‑blame (Nostra Aetate). Catholicism shifts from fortress to dialogue.
Gustavo Gutiérrez publishes A Theology of Liberation (1971): “preferential option for the poor.” Base communities read Bible through land‑reform lens; Oscar Romero martyred (1980) defending Salvadorans.
Vatican critiques Marxist flavor, yet Pope Francis later echoes social justice themes.
James Cone (Black Theology & Black Power, 1969) interprets Jesus as lynched Black body; hymns of civil‑rights church galvanize movement.
Womanist scholars (Katie Cannon) center Black women’s survival wisdom.
Feminist theologians (Rosemary Radford Ruether) expose patriarchal bias, retrieving female saints, Sophia Wisdom imagery.
Choan‑Seng Song (Taiwan) reads Exodus through Asian struggle; Minjung theology in Korea links gospel to democracy protests.
Maori, Aboriginal, and Andean Christians weave gospel with land spirituality, challenging extractive capitalism.
In 1900, two‑thirds of Christians lived in Europe; by 2025, Global South (Africa, Latin America, Asia) hosts over 65 %. Pentecostal megachurches in Lagos, São Paulo, Seoul dwarf European cathedrals. Philip Jenkins dubs it “The Next Christendom.”
U.S. Religious Right mobilizes post‑1973 Roe v. Wade; Moral Majority (Falwell), Focus on the Family (Dobson).
Global evangelicals fight corruption (Nigeria), trafficking (Southeast Asia), while debates rage on sexuality, climate, and migrants.
Livestream Eucharists, Zoom small‑groups, TikTok theologians. COVID‑19 accelerates virtual liturgy; sacramental theology wrestles with screen‑mediated presence.
World Council of Churches (founded 1948) fosters dialogue; joint Catholic‑Lutheran declaration on justification (1999) heals 16th‑century wound.
Pope Francis’s Fratelli Tutti (2020) and Abu Dhabi interfaith accord champion fraternity with Islam.
Grassroots reconciliation in Rwanda, Northern Ireland show gospel as peace catalyst.
Clergy Abuse Scandals erode trust.
Secularization surges in West; “nones” (no religious affiliation) grow.
Persecution intensifies in parts of Asia & Middle East—yet martyr blood still seeds faith.
Sunrise on Easter morning. From the basalt beaches of Samoa to the stained‑glass hush of Notre‑Dame’s nave, voices rise in hundreds of tongues: “Christos anesti … Christ is risen.”
Christianity began with a Galilean rabbi announcing a kingdom upside‑down, ratified by a cross the empire meant for shame. It multiplied through letters passed on Roman roads, survived lions and emperors, codified creeds in imperial halls, fractured and reformed, rode caravels and clipper ships, stowed away in slave quarters and barrios, marched with suffragettes and sang with civil‑rights choirs, danced at Azusa and knelt amid ruins at Ground Zero.
Today, it wrestles with its own shadows—colonial complicity, sectarian bloodshed—yet still shelters orphan and addict, funds hospitals and orphanages, and dares to pronounce forgiveness in a vengeful age. Its symbols fill art galleries, its hymns orbit satellites, its scriptures translate into emoji apps.
The question posed in Part 1 lingers: Jesus of Nazareth—revolutionary teacher or divine savior? Across twenty centuries, billions have answered “Both.” Others demur, yet still find the Sermon on the Mount haunting their conscience, the Pietà stirring their grief, the Advent candle warming their winter.
Whatever your verdict, the story of Christianity is a story no corner of the earth escapes. Its cross stands at the crossroads of empires and slums, of stained glass and smartphone screens—compelling, confounding, inviting each generation to decide where they stand when the cock crows and the stone rolls away.
Fade to silence… a single church bell tolls, then another, then countless more, until their resonance becomes the heartbeat of a world still arguing—still hoping—at the foot of the cross.
This timeline details the main events covered in the provided sources, tracing Christianity's development from its origins to the 21st century.
Circa 4 BCE – 30 CE: The Life and Ministry of Jesus of Nazareth
4 BCE – 30 CE: Jesus of Nazareth lives in Roman-occupied Judea. The period is marked by political tension under Herod the Great's dynasty and a diverse religious landscape (Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots, apocalyptic prophets like John the Baptist).
Ministry in Galilee: Jesus teaches through parables, performs miracles (healings, exorcisms, nature control), and practices inclusive table fellowship, attracting Twelve Disciples and women followers.
Passover in Jerusalem: Jesus enters Jerusalem, challenges priestly commerce by overturning money-changers in the Temple.
Crucifixion: Roman prefect Pontius Pilate and the Sanhedrin condemn Jesus for claiming to be Messiah and King of the Jews. He is crucified as a rebel.
Resurrection Proclamation: Followers report empty tomb sightings and appearances to various individuals (Peter, Mary Magdalene, Thomas) and groups (>500), transforming the scattered band into preaching witnesses. Early creedal statements about Christ's death and resurrection emerge.
50s CE – 1st Century CE: Early Church and Apostolic Spread
50s CE: Paul's letters, the earliest Christian writings, begin to circulate.
c. 34–36 CE: Saul of Tarsus, a Pharisee persecuting Christians, experiences a Damascus road vision of the risen Christ and converts, becoming Paul the Apostle.
46–58 CE (approx.): Paul embarks on multiple missionary journeys, spreading the message of Christianity throughout the Roman Empire, establishing the first European church in Philippi, and addressing theological issues in his letters (Galatians, Romans, 1 Corinthians 15, Philippians 2).
c. 64 CE: Emperor Nero blames Christians for the Great Fire of Rome, leading to persecution. Tradition holds Peter was crucified upside-down and Paul was beheaded around this time.
c. 70 CE: The Gospel of Mark is written, the earliest of the canonical Gospels.
80–90 CE: The Gospels of Matthew and Luke are written.
90–100 CE: The Gospel of John is written.
98–117 CE: Emperor Trajan endorses a policy of interrogating Christians but not actively hunting them; refusal to worship Caesar is punishable by death.
2nd – 4th Centuries CE: Persecution, Apologetics, and Doctrinal Formulation
Early 2nd Century CE: Apologists (Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen) begin to intellectually defend Christianity against pagan criticisms and to articulate its logical and moral superiority.
203 CE: The Acts of Perpetua and Felicity, an account of Christian martyrdom, is written.
250 CE: Decian edict mandates universal sacrifice to Roman gods; libelli certificates are issued to prove compliance.
251–356 CE: Anthony of Egypt lives, becoming an influential figure in the development of Christian monasticism.
303–311 CE: Diocletian's Great Persecution, a peak of martyrdom, involves the burning of scriptures and jailing of clergy.
312 CE: Emperor Constantine converts to Christianity after the Battle of Milvian Bridge.
313 CE: Edict of Milan, issued by Constantine, grants legal status to Christianity and returns confiscated property. Sunday becomes a public holiday, and bishops gain civil authority.
325 CE: Council of Nicaea, convoked by Constantine, addresses the Arian controversy. It affirms the homoousios doctrine (Son "of the same substance" with the Father) and produces the Nicene Creed. This establishes the precedent for ecumenical councils.
c. 367 CE: Athanasius's Easter Letter names the 27 books of the New Testament that are identical to the modern canon.
381 CE: Council of Constantinople reasserts Nicene faith, adds the Holy Spirit clause to the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, and condemns Apollinarianism.
397 CE: The Council of Carthage confirms the modern New Testament canon.
5th – 6th Centuries CE: Councils, Monasticism, and Early Missions
Early 5th Century CE: Ulfilas translates the Bible into Gothic.
431 CE: Council of Ephesus debates the Theotokos title for Mary, affirming the hypostatic union and deposing Nestorius.
451 CE: Council of Chalcedon defines Christ as having two natures (human and divine) united in one person. Churches rejecting this definition become Oriental Orthodox.
5th Century CE: Patrick evangelizes Ireland, leading to the rise of Celtic monasticism.
480–547 CE: Benedict of Nursia crafts his Rule, establishing the Benedictine order and shaping Western monasticism.
597 CE: Augustine of Canterbury is sent by Pope Gregory I to evangelize the Anglo-Saxons.
8th – 11th Centuries CE: Divergence and Schism
800 CE: Charlemagne is crowned Emperor, further highlighting the political divergence between East and West.
863 CE: The Photian controversy contributes to growing tensions between Rome and Constantinople.
1054 CE: The Great Schism occurs when Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida excommunicates Patriarch Michael Cerularius in Constantinople, and Cerularius reciprocates. This formalizes the theological and cultural separation of the Latin (Western) and Greek (Eastern) Churches.
11th – 15th Centuries CE: Medieval Christendom, Crusades, and Proto-Reformers
1095 CE: Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade.
1099 CE: The First Crusade captures Jerusalem.
12th Century CE: Mandatory celibacy for priests becomes standard in the Western Church.
1204 CE: The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople, deepening the schism between East and West.
1274 CE: Attempt at reunion between East and West at the Council of Lyons collapses.
1291 CE: Christians are expelled from Acre, marking the end of the Crusader states.
1309-1377 CE: The Avignon Papacy sees the papacy relocated to Avignon, France.
1378-1417 CE: The Western Schism occurs with rival popes in Rome, Avignon, and Pisa.
1415 CE: Jan Hus is burned at the stake for challenging indulgences and asserting conciliar supremacy.
1428 CE: John Wycliffe's body is exhumed and burned posthumously.
1439 CE: Attempt at reunion between East and West at the Council of Florence collapses.
15th – 17th Centuries CE: Reformation, Counter-Reformation, and Global Expansion
1492 CE: Christopher Columbus plants the cross in the Caribbean, initiating Iberian conquest and Catholic missions in the Americas.
1517 CE: Martin Luther posts (or mails) his 95 Theses to Wittenberg's Castle Church door, protesting the sale of indulgences, widely considered the start of the Protestant Reformation.
1521 CE: Luther appears before the Diet of Worms and is outlawed.
1522 CE: Luther translates the New Testament into German.
1524 CE: German Peasants' War is crushed.
1525 CE: Conrad Grebel re-baptizes adults, marking the beginning of the Anabaptist movement.
1531 CE: Our Lady of Guadalupe apparition occurs in Mexico.
1534 CE: Henry VIII issues the Act of Supremacy, making the monarch head of the Church of England.
1534 CE: A militant Anabaptist faction attempts a theocratic commune in Münster.
1536 CE: John Calvin publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion.
1542 CE: Francis Xavier arrives in Goa, beginning Jesuit missions in Asia.
1545-1563 CE: The Council of Trent convenes, launching the Catholic Counter-Reformation.
1562-1598 CE: The French Wars of Religion (Huguenots vs. Catholics) take place.
1572 CE: St. Bartholomew's Day massacre occurs in France.
1582 CE: Matteo Ricci arrives in China. The Gregorian calendar is introduced by the Catholic Church.
1605 CE: Roberto de Nobili begins his mission in India, adapting to Brahmin customs.
1618-1648 CE: The Thirty Years' War devastates Central Europe.
1648 CE: The Peace of Westphalia concludes the Thirty Years' War, establishing the concept of nation-states and legal toleration.
18th – 19th Centuries CE: Awakenings and Global Protestant Missions
1704 CE: Papal ban on ancestor veneration in China, a result of the "rites controversy."
1724 CE: Chinese emperor expels missionaries due to the rites controversy.
1730s-1740s: First Great Awakening in the American colonies, led by figures like Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.
1795 CE: London Missionary Society is founded, initiating a new wave of Protestant missions.
1800-1830s: Second Great Awakening in America, characterized by camp meetings and social reform movements.
1840s: Phoebe Palmer's Tuesday Meetings popularize the "second blessing" sanctification in the Holiness Movement.
1859 CE: Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, sparking a crisis for some traditional Christian views.
1864 CE: Samuel Ajayi Crowther becomes the first African Anglican bishop.
1865 CE: Hudson Taylor founds the China Inland Mission.
20th – 21st Centuries CE: New Movements, Dialogue, and Shifting Demographics
1900 CE: Over twenty million Methodists worldwide. Two-thirds of Christians live in Europe.
1906 CE: Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles under William J. Seymour, marking the birth of Pentecostalism.
1910-1915 CE: The Fundamentals are published, articulating key doctrines of Fundamentalism.
1925 CE: Scopes Trial pits Bible against evolution in a theatrical court case.
1948 CE: World Council of Churches is founded.
1960s: Charismatic Renewal spreads Pentecostal gifts into mainline churches.
1962-1965 CE: Vatican II (Second Vatican Council) takes place, opening windows for vernacular Mass, laity empowerment, ecumenism, religious liberty, and repudiation of Jew-blame.
1969 CE: James Cone publishes Black Theology & Black Power.
1971 CE: Gustavo Gutiérrez publishes A Theology of Liberation.
1973 CE: Roe v. Wade decision mobilizes the U.S. Religious Right.
1980 CE: Oscar Romero is martyred in El Salvador.
1999 CE: Joint Catholic-Lutheran declaration on justification helps heal a 16th-century theological wound.
2020 CE: Pope Francis publishes Fratelli Tutti and participates in the Abu Dhabi interfaith accord.
2025 CE (projected): Over 65% of Christians are expected to live in the Global South (Africa, Latin America, Asia).
Principal Figures:
Jesus of Nazareth: (c. 4 BCE – 30 CE) The central figure of Christianity, an itinerant carpenter's son from Galilee. He taught parables, performed miracles, practiced inclusive table fellowship, and was crucified by Roman authorities. His followers proclaimed his resurrection, forming the basis of the Christian movement.
Paul the Apostle (Saul of Tarsus): (c. 5 CE – c. 67 CE) A Pharisee initially zealous against "The Way" (early Christianity). He underwent a dramatic conversion experience on the Damascus road after encountering the risen Christ. He became a prolific missionary and theologian, articulating key doctrines such as justification by faith, the cruciform gospel, and the new creation of Jew and Gentile in Christ through his influential letters.
Peter (Cephas): One of Jesus's Twelve Disciples and a prominent leader among the early followers. He is traditionally believed to have been crucified upside-down in Rome during Nero's persecution.
Mary Magdalene: A woman follower of Jesus who helped bankroll his mission and was among the first witnesses to the empty tomb and the risen Christ.
Augustus: Roman Emperor during the time of Jesus's birth, noted for his empire-wide taxation efforts.
Herod the Great: The dynasty ruling Judea under Roman oversight during Jesus's time, known for juggling Roman taxation with local revolts.
John the Baptist: A prophet who "thundered judgment" in Judea, anticipating a coming Messiah.
Pontius Pilate: The Roman prefect responsible for Judea who condemned Jesus to crucifixion.
Nero: Roman Emperor (reigned 54–68 CE) who blamed Christians for the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, initiating persecution.
Trajan: Roman Emperor (reigned 98–117 CE) who endorsed a policy of not actively hunting Christians but punishing those who refused to worship Caesar.
Galerius: Roman Emperor who issued the Edict of Toleration (311 CE), ending the Great Persecution.
Diocletian: Roman Emperor (reigned 284–305 CE) who instigated the "Great Persecution" (303–311 CE), the most severe persecution of Christians.
Constantine: Roman Emperor (reigned 306–337 CE) who converted to Christianity (c. 312 CE) and issued the Edict of Milan (313 CE), granting Christianity legal status. He convened the Council of Nicaea.
Arius: A presbyter from Alexandria in the early 4th century whose theological views (Arianism) denied Christ's co-eternality and co-substance with God the Father, leading to the Council of Nicaea.
Athanasius: Bishop of Alexandria and staunch opponent of Arianism. He was a key figure at the Council of Nicaea and later compiled the list of 27 New Testament books. His Life of Anthony popularized monastic ideals.
Cyril of Alexandria: A key figure in the Council of Ephesus (431 CE) who championed the title Theotokos (God-bearer) for Mary and the concept of hypostatic union in Christ.
Nestorius: Patriarch of Constantinople, whose teachings separated Christ's human and divine personas, leading to his condemnation at the Council of Ephesus.
Anthony of Egypt: (251–356 CE) An early Christian ascetic who sold his possessions and lived in the desert, battling demons. Considered a foundational figure in monasticism.
Pachomius: An early Christian monk who organized communal (cenobitic) monasteries, providing structure for monastic life.
Basil the Great: (c. 330–379 CE) A Cappadocian Father who wrote a significant rule for monastic life, emphasizing community, liturgy, and service, shaping Eastern monasticism.
Benedict of Nursia: (c. 480–547 CE) A key figure in Western monasticism who crafted the Benedictine Rule, balancing prayer and labor, which became foundational for the Benedictine order.
Ulfilas: A 4th-century bishop who translated the Bible into the Gothic language, aiding the conversion of Germanic peoples.
Patrick: (5th century CE) A missionary who evangelized Ireland, contributing to the development of Celtic monasticism.
Pope Gregory I: (c. 540–604 CE) Pope who sent Augustine of Canterbury to evangelize the Anglo-Saxons in 597 CE.
Michael Cerularius: Patriarch of Constantinople in 1054 CE, whose mutual excommunication with Cardinal Humbert marked the formal Great Schism between East and West.
Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida: Papal legate dispatched by Pope Leo IX in 1054 CE. His act of excommunicating Michael Cerularius precipitated the Great Schism.
Pope Urban II: Pope who called for the First Crusade in 1095 CE.
Anselm of Canterbury: (c. 1033–1109 CE) A scholastic theologian known for "faith seeking understanding" and his ontological argument for God's existence.
Thomas Aquinas: (c. 1225–1274 CE) A highly influential scholastic philosopher and theologian, author of the Summa Theologica, who integrated Aristotle's philosophy with Augustine's theology.
Catherine of Siena: (1347–1380 CE) A mystic and reformer who advocated for the return of the papacy from Avignon to Rome.
John Wycliffe: (c. 1328–1384 CE) English proto-reformer who translated the Bible into Middle English and challenged traditional doctrines like transubstantiation.
Jan Hus: (c. 1369–1415 CE) Bohemian proto-reformer who challenged indulgences and asserted conciliar supremacy. He was burned at the stake.
Martin Luther: (1483–1546 CE) German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging indulgences with his 95 Theses (1517). He championed Sola Scriptura, Sola Fide, and Sola Gratia.
Johann Tetzel: A Dominican friar known for his sale of indulgences, which Luther protested.
Ulrich Zwingli: (1484–1531 CE) Swiss reformer in Zurich who abolished images and simplified the Eucharist as a memorial.
John Calvin: (1509–1564 CE) French theologian who was a leading figure in the Protestant Reformation, known for his Institutes of Christian Religion and the doctrine of predestination. His work in Geneva influenced many reformers.
Conrad Grebel: (c. 1498–1526 CE) A key figure in the early Anabaptist movement, known for re-baptizing adults in opposition to infant baptism.
Henry VIII: King of England (reigned 1509–1547) who broke with the Roman Catholic Church by passing the Act of Supremacy (1534), making himself head of the Church of England, primarily to secure an annulment.
Edward VI: King of England (reigned 1547–1553), who swung the Church of England further towards Protestantism.
Mary I: Queen of England (reigned 1553–1558), who attempted to restore Catholicism and persecuted Protestants.
Thomas Cranmer: (1489–1556 CE) Archbishop of Canterbury during the English Reformation, martyred under Mary I.
Elizabeth I: Queen of England (reigned 1558–1603) who established a via media (middle way) for the Church of England, outlining its doctrines in the 39 Articles.
Ignatius Loyola: (1491–1556 CE) Founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a key order in the Catholic Counter-Reformation, known for their vows to the Pope and their work in missions and education.
Teresa of Ávila: (1515–1582 CE) Spanish Carmelite nun and mystic who revitalized mysticism during the Counter-Reformation.
John of the Cross: (1542–1591 CE) Spanish Carmelite friar and mystic who worked with Teresa of Ávila to revitalize mysticism.
Caravaggio: (1571–1610 CE) Italian Baroque painter whose dramatic art helped to convey Catholic Counter-Reformation themes.
Christopher Columbus: (1451–1506 CE) His 1492 voyage to the Caribbean marked the beginning of European colonization and the spread of Christianity to the Americas.
Bartolomé de las Casas: (1484–1566 CE) Spanish Dominican friar who advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples in the Americas, often condemning the abuses of colonial rule.
Francis Xavier: (1506–1552 CE) One of the first Jesuits, a prominent missionary who reached Goa (1542) and Japan (1549), spreading Catholicism in Asia.
Matteo Ricci: (1552–1610 CE) Jesuit missionary to China (1582) who adopted Confucian robes and mastered Mandarin to facilitate evangelism, central to the "rites controversy."
Roberto de Nobili: (1577–1656 CE) Jesuit missionary in India (1605) who adopted Brahmin customs and translated liturgy into Tamil, pioneering inculturation.
David Livingstone: (1813–1873 CE) Scottish missionary and explorer who worked in Africa, representing Protestant missionary efforts.
Hudson Taylor: (1832–1905 CE) Founder of the China Inland Mission (1865), a significant Protestant missionary organization that focused on evangelizing the interior of China.
Jonathan Edwards: (1703–1758 CE) An American revivalist preacher during the First Great Awakening, known for stressing personal conversion.
George Whitefield: (1714–1770 CE) An Anglican evangelist who played a major role in the First Great Awakening, known for his powerful open-air preaching.
Charles Finney: (1792–1875 CE) A leader of the Second Great Awakening in America, known for promoting abolition and temperance.
John Wesley: (1703–1791 CE) Founder of Methodism, an influential figure in the Evangelical Awakenings.
Charles Wesley: (1707–1788 CE) Brother of John Wesley and a prolific hymn writer for the Methodist movement.
Samuel Ajayi Crowther: (c. 1807–1891 CE) The first African Anglican bishop, consecrated in 1864 in Nigeria, representing indigenous leadership in missions.
Pandita Ramabai: (1858–1922 CE) An Indian Christian feminist who pioneered work for women's rights and education.
Hinmatóowyalahtq̓it (Chief Joseph): (1840–1904 CE) Leader of the Nez Perce people, noted for blending Christian gospel with tribal identity.
Phoebe Palmer: (1807–1874 CE) A prominent figure in the Holiness Movement, known for her "Tuesday Meetings" that promoted the concept of a "second blessing" of sanctification.
William J. Seymour: (1870–1922 CE) The leader of the Azusa Street Revival (1906) in Los Angeles, which is considered the birthplace of Pentecostalism.
Charles Darwin: (1809–1882 CE) Naturalist and author of On the Origin of Species (1859), whose theory of evolution sparked significant intellectual and theological debates within Christianity.
Pope John XXIII: (1881–1963 CE) Pope who initiated the Second Vatican Council (Vatican II) in 1962, aiming to "open windows" and modernize the Catholic Church.
Gustavo Gutiérrez: (b. 1928) Peruvian theologian, author of A Theology of Liberation (1971), and a foundational figure in liberation theology, emphasizing the "preferential option for the poor."
Oscar Romero: (1917–1980 CE) Archbishop of San Salvador, martyred in 1980 for defending Salvadoran poor and oppressed, a prominent figure in liberation theology.
Pope Francis: (b. 1936) Current Pope, who has echoed social justice themes of liberation theology and promoted ecumenism and interfaith dialogue (e.g., Fratelli Tutti, Abu Dhabi accord).
James Cone: (1938–2018 CE) American theologian, author of Black Theology & Black Power (1969), who interpreted Jesus as a "lynched Black body," foundational for Black Theology.
Katie Cannon: (1950–2018 CE) Womanist scholar who centered Black women's survival wisdom in her theological work.
Rosemary Radford Ruether: (1936–2022 CE) Feminist theologian who exposed patriarchal bias in Christianity and sought to retrieve female spiritual figures.
Choan-Seng Song: (b. 1929) Taiwanese theologian who interprets Exodus through the lens of Asian struggle, contributing to Asian contextual theologies.
Philip Jenkins: Contemporary scholar who coined the term "The Next Christendom" to describe the demographic shift of Christianity's center of gravity to the Global South.
Jerry Falwell: (1933–2007 CE) American Southern Baptist pastor and televangelist, co-founder of the Moral Majority, a key figure in the U.S. Religious Right.
James Dobson: (b. 1936) American evangelical Christian psychologist and founder of Focus on the Family, influential in the U.S. Religious Right.
NotebookLM can be inaccurate; please double check its responses.
Instructions: Answer each question in 2-3 sentences.
Describe the religious and political context of Judea during Jesus of Nazareth's ministry.
What significant events marked Jesus's "Clash in Jerusalem" and what was the outcome?
How did Paul's conversion on the Damascus road transform his life and what were his "Three Pillars" of theology?
Briefly explain the role of persecution and martyrdom in the early formation of Christian identity.
What was the primary issue addressed by the Council of Nicaea, and what doctrinal term emerged from it?
How did Emperor Constantine's conversion impact the legal status and public presence of Christianity?
Identify two key differences in theological or liturgical practices that contributed to the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western churches.
Name two "Proto-Reformers" who challenged the Catholic Church before Martin Luther, and describe one significant action of each.
What was the significance of the Azusa Street Revival in 1906 for the development of Pentecostalism?
Explain the concept of "preferential option for the poor" as articulated in Liberation Theology.
First-century Judea was under Roman occupation, leading to political tension and taxation. Religiously, it was a mosaic of groups like Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, and Zealots, with a widespread apocalyptic expectation for a messiah.
Jesus entered Jerusalem at Passover, overturning money-changers in the Temple, which challenged the priestly establishment. This action, combined with claims of being Messiah and King of the Jews, led to his arrest by the Sanhedrin and crucifixion by Roman prefect Pontius Pilate as a deterrent for rebels.
Paul, originally Saul of Tarsus and a zealous Pharisee, had a vision of the risen Christ on the Damascus road that flipped his allegiance. His "Three Pillars" of theology were the Cruciform Gospel (weakness as power), Justification by Faith (legal acquittal through Christ), and New Creation (Jew and Gentile fused in Christ).
Persecution, though sporadic, was a significant crucible for early Christian identity. Martyrs, seen as emulating Christ's passion, were believed to receive immediate heaven, and their witness inspired courage, leading to martyr feasts that crowded the Christian calendar.
The Council of Nicaea primarily addressed the Arian controversy, which denied Christ's co-eternality with God the Father. The resulting doctrinal term was "Homoousios," meaning the Son is "of the same substance" with the Father, affirming Christ's divinity.
Constantine's conversion and the Edict of Milan (313 CE) granted Christianity legal status and returned confiscated property. Sunday became a public holiday, basilicas were built, and bishops gained civil authority, leading to the development of a clerical hierarchy and increased wealth for the Church.
One key difference was the language, with the Western Church using Latin for legal precision and the East using Koine/Byzantine Greek for philosophical nuance. Another was authority: the West emphasized the Pope as universal primate (Petrine claim), while the East favored the collegiality of five patriarchates with the Pope as primus inter pares.
John Wycliffe (England) translated the Bible into Middle English and denounced transubstantiation. Jan Hus (Bohemia) challenged indulgences and asserted conciliar supremacy. Both were condemned posthumously or burned at the stake for their proto-Reformation ideas.
The Azusa Street Revival, led by William J. Seymour in Los Angeles in 1906, was a significant event marked by interracial participation and ecstatic experiences like speaking in tongues. It is widely considered the birthplace of modern Pentecostalism, leading to the formation of major denominations like the Assemblies of God.
The "preferential option for the poor," articulated by Gustavo Gutiérrez in Liberation Theology, is a core concept that calls for Christians to prioritize the needs and experiences of the marginalized and oppressed. It frames the reading of the Bible through the lens of social justice and liberation from systemic poverty and injustice.
Analyze how the "five crucibles" identified in the source (Jesus of Nazareth, Gospels/Paul, Persecution, Councils/Creeds, and Constantine to Chalcedon) shaped the foundational identity and early development of Christianity.
Compare and contrast the key theological and ecclesiastical differences between the Western (Latin) and Eastern (Greek) Churches that led to the Great Schism of 1054. Discuss how these differences continue to manifest today.
Discuss the impact of the Protestant Reformation on the political, social, and religious landscape of Europe. How did the doctrines of Sola Scriptura, Sola Fide, and Sola Gratia challenge the existing Catholic sacramental economy and lead to new forms of Christian expression?
Examine the complex relationship between Christian missions and colonialism from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Provide specific examples of how missionaries both collaborated with and challenged colonial powers, and discuss the emergence of indigenous Christian agency.
Trace the significant shifts in Christianity's "center of gravity" from the West to the Global South in the 20th and 21st centuries. What factors contributed to this demographic change, and how has it impacted the global expression and priorities of Christianity?
Anabaptists: Radical reformers during the Protestant Reformation who opposed infant baptism, advocating for adult re-baptism, separation of church and state, and pacifism.
Apocalyptic Expectation: A widespread belief in first-century Judea that God would soon intervene dramatically in history to bring about judgment and establish a new order, often through a messianic figure.
Apologists: Early Christian writers of the 2nd century who intellectually defended Christianity against criticisms from Roman society and other philosophical systems.
Arianism: A theological controversy from the 4th century, spearheaded by Arius, which posited that Christ was a created being, subordinate to God the Father, rather than co-eternal and co-equal.
Azusa Street Revival: A significant multi-racial religious revival that began in Los Angeles in 1906, often considered the birthplace of modern Pentecostalism due to its emphasis on ecstatic worship and spiritual gifts.
Canonical Gospels: The four accepted Gospels in the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) that provide narratives of Jesus's life, ministry, death, and resurrection.
Catacombs: Underground burial sites, particularly in Rome, used by early Christians. While sometimes associated with hiding, they primarily served as cemeteries.
Cenobitic Monasticism: A form of monasticism where monks live together in a community under a common rule, in contrast to hermitic or solitary monasticism.
Chalcedon (Council of): An ecumenical council held in 451 CE that defined Christ as having two natures (fully human and fully divine) united in one person, "without confusion, change, division, or separation."
Christology: The branch of Christian theology concerned with the nature of Jesus Christ, particularly his divinity and humanity.
Constantine (Emperor): Roman Emperor (r. 306–337 CE) whose conversion to Christianity and subsequent Edict of Milan (313 CE) granted religious toleration, fundamentally shifting the legal status and public presence of Christianity.
Cruciform Gospel: A key theological concept of Paul's, emphasizing that power is found in weakness and suffering, mirroring Christ's crucifixion as the ultimate demonstration of divine power.
Ecumenism: A movement promoting unity and cooperation among different Christian denominations and traditions.
Edict of Milan (313 CE): A proclamation by Emperors Constantine and Licinius that granted legal status and religious toleration to Christians throughout the Roman Empire.
Filioque: A Latin term meaning "and the Son," added to the Nicene Creed in the Western Church, stating that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son, a point of significant contention with the Eastern Orthodox Church.
First Great Awakening: A series of Protestant religious revivals that swept through the American colonies in the 1730s and 1740s, emphasizing personal conversion and experiential faith.
Fundamentalism: A movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in response to modernism and higher criticism, emphasizing literal interpretation of the Bible and key "fundamentals" of Christian doctrine.
Gnosticism: Diverse ancient religious and philosophical systems, often characterized by a dualistic view of spirit and matter, and a belief in salvation through secret knowledge (gnosis).
Great Schism (1054): The formal break in communion between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches, rooted in long-standing theological, liturgical, and political differences.
Homoousios: A Greek term meaning "of the same substance," affirmed at the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) to describe the relationship between God the Father and God the Son, asserting their co-equality and co-divinity.
Hypostatic Union: The theological term referring to the union of the divine and human natures in the one person of Jesus Christ, without confusion or separation.
Indulgences: In the Catholic Church, a remission of the temporal punishment for sins, often granted for specific good works or contributions, which became a significant point of contention during the Reformation.
Institutes of the Christian Religion: John Calvin's seminal work of Protestant theology, first published in 1536, which systematized reformed doctrine including predestination and church governance.
Justification by Faith: A core Protestant doctrine, especially prominent in Paul's theology and Luther's reforms, stating that salvation is granted solely through belief in Christ, not through adherence to law or good works.
Kenosis: A Greek term meaning "self-emptying," used in Philippians 2 to describe Christ's voluntary renunciation of certain divine attributes or privileges in his incarnation.
Kyrios (Lord): A Greek title applied to Jesus in the New Testament, signifying his divine sovereignty and often echoing the divine name YHWH.
Liberation Theology: A theological movement, primarily in Latin America, that interprets Christian faith through the lens of liberation from oppressive social, political, and economic conditions, often advocating for the "preferential option for the poor."
Logos: A Greek term meaning "word," "reason," or "logic," central to John's Gospel, where it refers to Christ as the divine Word existing with God from the beginning and through whom all things were created.
Marcionism: An early Christian heresy that rejected the Old Testament and the God of the Jews, proposing a different, benevolent God revealed through Jesus. Marcion's canon included only a modified Luke and Paul's letters.
Martyr (Martys): Greek term meaning "witness." In Christianity, one who suffers persecution and death for their faith, often seen as emulating Christ's passion.
Messiah (Mashiach/Christos): Hebrew (Mashiach) and Greek (Christos) terms meaning "anointed one," referring to a divinely appointed leader or savior, particularly anticipated in Jewish tradition as a liberator.
Monophysitism: An early Christological heresy that argued Christ had only one nature, which was predominantly divine, absorbing his humanity. This was condemned at the Council of Chalcedon.
Montanism: An early Christian movement emphasizing new prophecy, ecstatic visions, and a belief in the imminent end of the world.
Muratorian Fragment: An ancient Latin manuscript from the late 2nd century that lists most of the books of the New Testament, providing early evidence for the developing Christian canon.
Nicene Creed: The foundational statement of Christian belief formulated at the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) and expanded at the Council of Constantinople (381 CE), affirming the divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit.
Nicaea (Council of): The first ecumenical council of the Christian Church, convened by Emperor Constantine in 325 CE, primarily to address the Arian controversy and establish the doctrine of Christ's divinity.
95 Theses: A list of propositions for an academic debate written by Martin Luther in 1517, challenging the practice of selling indulgences and often considered the start of the Protestant Reformation.
Orthodoxy: "Right belief" or "correct teaching." In Christianity, refers to established doctrines and practices considered true and essential by the mainstream Church, especially contrasted with heresy.
Pachomius: An early Egyptian Christian monk (c. 292–348 CE) who is credited with organizing the first communal (cenobitic) monasteries.
Parables: Simple stories used by Jesus to illustrate a moral or spiritual lesson, often reconfiguring societal values into "kingdom values."
Paul the Apostle (Saul of Tarsus): A key figure in early Christianity whose conversion experience and extensive missionary journeys spread the Christian message to Gentiles, and whose letters form a significant part of the New Testament.
Pax Romana: The long period of relative peace and minimal expansion experienced by the Roman Empire from 27 BCE to 180 CE, which facilitated the spread of early Christianity.
Pentecostalism: A Protestant Christian movement that emphasizes a direct, personal experience of God through the Holy Spirit, often including spiritual gifts like speaking in tongues and divine healing.
Perpetua and Felicity (Acts of): A famous account of the martyrdom of two Christian women in Carthage in 203 CE, depicting their visions and courage in the face of persecution.
Pharisees: A prominent Jewish sect in first-century Judea known for their emphasis on oral law, strict adherence to traditions, and belief in resurrection.
Pontius Pilate: The Roman prefect of Judea who presided over the trial of Jesus and ultimately ordered his crucifixion.
Predestination: The theological doctrine, particularly associated with John Calvin, that God has eternally determined who will be saved and who will be damned.
Proto-Reformers: Individuals like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus who, in the centuries leading up to the Protestant Reformation, challenged established church doctrines and practices, anticipating later reforms.
Resurrection Proclamation: The central Christian belief that Jesus Christ rose bodily from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion, transforming his followers into preaching witnesses.
Sadducees: A prominent Jewish sect in first-century Judea, largely aristocratic and priestly, who controlled the Temple cult and rejected oral law and the concept of resurrection.
Sanhedrin: The supreme Jewish legislative and judicial body in ancient Judea, which played a role in Jesus's trial.
Scholasticism: A medieval philosophical and theological method that sought to reconcile classical philosophy (especially Aristotle) with Christian doctrine, exemplified by thinkers like Thomas Aquinas.
Septuagint: The oldest surviving Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which was widely used by early Christians.
Sola Fide: Latin for "faith alone," a key doctrine of the Protestant Reformation asserting that salvation is received through faith in Christ alone, not through works.
Sola Gratia: Latin for "grace alone," a key doctrine of the Protestant Reformation emphasizing that salvation is entirely a gift from God, unearned by human merit.
Sola Scriptura: Latin for "scripture alone," a key doctrine of the Protestant Reformation asserting that the Bible is the sole infallible source of Christian authority.
Summa Theologiae: Thomas Aquinas's monumental work, the most comprehensive systematic theology of the Middle Ages, which sought to synthesize Christian doctrine with Aristotelian philosophy.
Theotokos: A Greek title for Mary, meaning "God-bearer" or "Mother of God," affirmed at the Council of Ephesus (431 CE) to emphasize the full divinity of Christ from his conception.
Thirty Years' War (1618-1648): A devastating series of conflicts in Central Europe, largely driven by religious (Protestant vs. Catholic) and political rivalries, culminating in the Peace of Westphalia.
Transubstantiation: The Catholic doctrine that in the Eucharist, the substance of the bread and wine is transformed into the actual body and blood of Christ, while their outward appearances remain.
Trent (Council of): A pivotal ecumenical council of the Catholic Church held from 1545 to 1563, which responded to the Protestant Reformation by reaffirming Catholic doctrines and implementing significant reforms.
Ulfilas: A 4th-century Gothic bishop who translated the Bible into the Gothic language, contributing to the spread of Christianity among Germanic tribes.
Vatican II (Second Vatican Council): A landmark ecumenical council of the Catholic Church held from 1962 to 1965, which introduced significant reforms including vernacular Mass, increased lay participation, ecumenism, and religious liberty.
Zealots: A Jewish political-religious movement in first-century Judea known for their zealous opposition to Roman rule and their advocacy for armed rebellion.