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Space-based imagery now provides the GIS professional with the ability to monitor isolated regions and minority groups at risk of environmental exploitation and human rights abuse. Increased economic globalization and climate change pressure will likely increase the frequency and intensity of regional ethnic and resource motivated conflict. Although the use of high resolution satellite imagery for monitoring human rights abuse was proposed even before the conflict in the former Yugoslavian state of Bosnia, only in the last decade has satellite imagery of sufficiently high resolution become available for mainstream human rights applications. Operators such as GeoEye have provided metric earth observation and analysis with satellites such as IKONOS 2, which travels in a roughly 423km altitude polar orbit around the earth.
I was invited by Survival International, a human rights organization focused primarily on indigenous groups around the globe, to look closely at the Grasberg mine complex in Irian Jaya (West Papua). This request followed previous studies I had been involved with in southern Sudan and Zimbabwe (1-2). We applied to the GeoEye Foundation for satellite imagery data covering this region.
The intention of this particular human rights study was to monitor mining corporation activities in these poorly documented regions. Very few maps and data are available for these areas due to their inherent inaccessibility. It should be noted that severe passive opposition (such as placarded marches, public awareness, use of national and international media, etc.) and active opposition (including deliberately damaging equipment, damaging fuel lines, etc.) near the Grasberg mine has resulted in concerted media interest world-wide. Access to this region is significantly restricted. The recent deaths of two U.S. journalists and the West Papuan leader, Kelly Kwalik, close to the mine in late December 2009 only served to heighten existing tensions in the Irian Jaya region. Kwalik had advocated passive resistance to the occupation of tribal homelands by Indonesian military forces.
A key challenge for confirming human rights abuse allegations is a rapid response to the claims and reports, which often lack precise locations on the ground. Effective and timely response by the international media and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is hindered by not knowing the size of affected areas, or distribution of numbers of people affected. Furthermore, there is often unwillingness by the local governments to permit access to foreign press members who might verify poor living conditions or provide humanitarian relief to potential "enemies of the state." These fears create a xenophobic response to outside influences. This is evidenced by the rapid response of the international community in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis in 2008, which was sadly short-circuited to a great extent by the reticence of the Burmese authorities to receive aid.
There has been considerable concern about the indigenous Amungme and Komoro tribes, with the expansive growth in the Grasberg mine. This mine is operated by Rio Tinto (a U.S. registered company) as a 40% joint venture partnership with Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold (FCX) run in partnership with the Indonesian Government. PT Freeport Indonesia (PTFI) is a subsidiary of the U.S. company, Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold Inc. Freeport McMoran Copper and Gold Inc. is listed on the New York Stock Exchange, and PTFI is listed on the Jakarta Stock Exchange. This mine is the largest gold mine in the world and the third largest copper mine - a significant factor in the Indonesian economic sector.
A relatively recent (2006) and comprehensive report (3) by WAHLI - the Indonesian Forum for Environment, the environmental watchdog of Indonesia - stated significant concerns over Rio Tinto's continued failure to address human rights and workers' rights, as well as shortcomings in environmental protection. The report listed the following: legal breaches, copper wastage and pollution, engineering inadequacies, vegetation smothering, tailings toxicity, estuary habitat destruction, contamination of estuary food chain and ecological disruption.
WALHI's recommendations were very forthright. It recommended that the government immediately enforce national environmental law by halting Freeport-Rio Tinto operations until breaches were remedied, undertake its own thorough and regular sampling, re-examine tax and royalty arrangements, and establish an independent panel to define various issues including processing and waste management. Local communities protesting against environmental and cultural damage by the mine's expansion and operations have been subject to a range of measures including harassment, torture and even murder. It is on such grounds that the Norwegian Pension Fund finally disinvested from Rio Tinto in 2008. For the Amungme and Komoro tribes, the reduction of the once magnificent Mt. Grasberg, one of the largest peaks of the Sudirman range of West Papua, to an intensely excavated plateau has been quite devastating. Tribes were forcefully relocated, leaving thousands of indigenous people removed from their traditional farming and food gathering territories. Moving Amungme to the more tropical lowlands brought people without natural malarial immunity into contact with malaria carrying mosquitoes, which has led to an increase in mortality rates.
The vast Grasberg copper and gold mine (figure 1), at over 2.6M hectares, was first prospected thoroughly by Dutch geologists in the 1930s. It comprises several delicate ecosystems - alpine meadow, wetland and mangrove forest - which make this environmental site world-renowned for its range and diversity of flora and fauna. The mine is seen at the left with glaciers at the right. The accelerated rate of mine and infrastructure development and consequential environmental destruction are set against a backdrop of rising tension. The strong indigenous desire for West Papuan independence, which began during the Indonesian occupation in the1960s, places Grasberg's Freeport mine as a strong contender for the worst case of environmental and human rights abuse of any mining project currently underway in the world.
Damage to the environment caused by the mine has impaired the ability of thousands of Amungme and Komoro tribesmen, traditional owners of the mine site and river areas, to access food and clean water, and to maintain their own unique cultural practices. Each day the mine dumps over 230,000 tons of waste into the Ajikwa River (4), resulting in increased sediment transport, which has deoxygenated the river, killing plants and fish alike. Rapid development of the land and river systems to the south of the mine have led to rapid deforestation between 2000 and 2002 (figures 2a [2002] and 2b [2000] and figures 3a [2002] and 3b [2000]). The land cleared on the right of the river is about 7190 square yards, with bridges and man-made lakes created (365, 294, 102 and 69 square yard areas approximately, respectively). New square building plots, displacing what was recently pristine forest, are visible at about 16 yards by 16 yards dimensions. Some buildings have also been partially removed during this period. This land clearance, sadly, is not an isolated case but is now a major problem, as documented in recent ESA satellite projects. ERS-1-SAR (synthetic aperture radar) data have been used to monitor rain forest "conversion" and land use planning. The ESA pilot project TRULI, located on the island of Borneo, 450 km upstream of the Mahakam River, sets a benchmark for monitoring Indonesian tropical rain forest removal.
Thousands of tons of waste rock are also dumped by lorry into nearby alpine valleys where high tropical rainfall (often leaving the mountains hidden in thick mist) and erosion lead to fine materials moving downstream, releasing further heavy metals such as mercury, cadmium and copper into the local river networks. This contamination is toxic to aquatic organisms and offers the threat of concentration in the food chain.
The mine complex itself, highlighted with Brava Reader, stands at approximately 15,099,000 square yards, with the obvious bored out circular core of the mine (Tambang Terbuka) standing at 2,213,000 square yards. The level of detail allows for the monitoring of individual trucks (8 yd x 16 yd- width x length) and the ability to differentiate the operations of different types of mine machinery (figure 4). A large unstable rock mass on the edge of the north side of the mine resulted in a land fall prior to 2002, the collapse covering an area of over 770,000 square yards (figure 5).
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