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In Celtic cultures, a ____ is a professional story teller, verse-maker, music composer, oral historian and genealogist, employed by a patron (such as a monarch or chieftain) to commemorate one or more of the patron's ancestors and to praise the patron's own activities.

The English term 3____ is a loan word from the Celtic languages: Gaulish: 4______ ('bard, poet'), Middle Irish: bard and Scottish Gaelic: brd ('bard, poet'), Middle Welsh: bardd ('singer, poet'), Middle Breton: 5____ ('minstrel'), Old Cornish: barth ('jester').[3][4] The ancient Gaulish *6______ is attested as bardus (sing.) in Latin and as brdoi (plur.) in Ancient Greek. It also appears as a stem in 7______________ ('bard's hood'), 8___________ ('field of the bard'), 9________ (a song to fire soldiers), and in 10_______ ('crested lark', a singing bird).[3]

In the words of the Oxford English Dictionary, the bards were an "ancient Celtic order of minstrel-poets, whose primary function appears to have been to compose and sing (usually to the harp) verses celebrating the achievements of chiefs and warriors, and who committed to verse historical and traditional facts, religious precepts, laws, genealogies, etc."[1]

In medieval Gaelic and Welsh society, a 11____ (Scottish and Irish Gaelic) or 12_____ (Welsh) was a professional poet, employed to compose elegies for his lord. If the employer failed to pay the proper amount, the bard would then compose a satire (c.f. 13____, 14____). In other Indo-European societies, the same function was fulfilled by skalds, rhapsodes, minstrels and 15_____, among others. A hereditary caste of professional poets in Proto-Indo-European society has been reconstructed by comparison of the position of poets in medieval Ireland and in ancient India in particular.[6]

Bards (who are not the same as the Irish filidh or fili) were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors' deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies and family histories of the ruling strata among Celtic societies. The pre-Christian Celtic people recorded no written histories; however, Celtic peoples did maintain an intricate oral history committed to memory and transmitted by bards and filid. Bards facilitated the memorization of such materials by the use of metre, rhyme and other formulaic poetic devices.[16_______________]

In medieval Ireland, bards were one of two distinct groups of poets, the other being the 17____. According to the Early Irish law text on status, 18______________, bards were a lesser class of poets, not eligible for higher poetic roles as described above. However, it has also been argued that the distinction between 19_____ (pl. of 20____) and bards was a creation of Christian Ireland, and that the 21_____ were more associated with the church.[7][8] By the Early Modern Period, these names came to be used interchangeably.[9]

Irish bards formed a professional hereditary caste of highly trained, learned poets. The bards were steeped in the history and traditions of clan and country, as well as in the technical requirements of a verse technique that was syllabic and used assonance, half rhyme and alliteration, among other conventions. As officials of the court of king or chieftain, they performed a number of official roles. They were chroniclers and satirists whose job it was to praise their employers and damn those who crossed them.[10] It was believed that a well-aimed bardic satire, glam dicenn, could raise boils on the face of its target.

The bardic system lasted until the mid-17th century in Ireland and the early 18th century in Scotland. In Ireland, their fortunes had always been linked to the Gaelic aristocracy, which declined along with them during the Tudor Reconquest.[11]

The best-known group of bards in Scotland were the members of the MacMhuirich family, who flourished from the 15th to the 18th centuries. The family was centred in the Hebrides, and claimed descent from a 13th-century Irish bard who, according to legend, was exiled to Scotland. The family was at first chiefly employed by the Lords of the Isles as poets, lawyers, and physicians.[12] With the fall of the Lordship of the Isles in the 15th century, the family was chiefly employed by the chiefs of the MacDonalds of Clanranald. Members of the family were also recorded as musicians in the early 16th century, and as clergymen possibly as early as the early 15th century.[13] The last of the family to practise classical Gaelic poetry was Domhnall MacMhuirich, who lived on South Uist in the 18th century.[12]

In Gaelic-speaking areas, a 1____________ or 2____________ (Scottish Gaelic: brd-baile) is a local poet who composes works in a traditional style relating to that community. Notable village bards include Dmhnall Ruadh Chorna and Dmhnall Ruadh Phislig [gd].[14]

The royal form of bardic tradition ceased in the 13th century, when the 1282 Edwardian conquest permanently ended the rule of the Welsh princes. The legendary suicide of 22_____________ (c. 1283), was commemorated in the poem 23__________________ by the Hungarian poet Jnos Arany in 1857, as a way of encoded resistance to the suppressive politics of his own time. However, the poetic and musical traditions were continued throughout the Middle Ages, e.g., by noted 14th-century poets Dafydd ap Gwilym and Iolo Goch. Also the tradition of regularly assembling bards at an eisteddfod never lapsed and was strengthened by formation of the Gorsedd by Iolo Morganwg in 1792.

Wales in the twentieth century is a leading Celtic upholder of the bardic tradition. The annual National Eisteddfod of Wales (Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru) (which was first held in 1880) is held in which bards are chaired (see Category:Chaired bards) and crowned (see Category:Crowned bards). The Urdd National Eisteddfod is also held annually. And many schools hold their own annual 24____________ which emulate bardic traditions.[15] 5376163bf9

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