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Cosmologies
Nature of the Universe

Gig Φ Philosophy: Published August, 2025 [UPDATED 2026]

Introduction

Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. It's a field where science, philosophy, and religion often intersect, each offering a unique lens through which to understand our place in the cosmos. At its core, cosmology seeks to answer the big questions: Where did everything come from? How is it structured? And where is it all going? 🔭

Terminology

Before exploring specific worldviews, it's helpful to understand a few key concepts that form the building blocks of any cosmology.

Cosmogony: This refers specifically to the origin story of the universe. If cosmology is the entire book of the universe, cosmogony is its first chapter, detailing the moment of creation.
Eschatology: This is the flip side of cosmogony. It's the part of a worldview concerned with the final events of history, or the ultimate destiny of humanity—the "end times" or end of a cycle.
Soteriology: This branch of thought deals with salvation or liberation. If eschatology describes the final destiny, soteriology explains how an individual or humanity as a whole can achieve the most desirable outcome (e.g., heaven, enlightenment, liberation from a cycle of rebirth).
Mythology: These are the traditional stories of a culture, often involving supernatural beings or events, that serve as the narrative vehicle for explaining cosmogony, eschatology, and a culture's moral framework.

Monism vs. Dualism:

These terms describe the fundamental nature of reality.

Monism is the belief that all of reality is ultimately one single substance or principle. Think of how waves, ice, and steam are all different manifestations of one thing: water.
Dualism is the belief that the universe is governed by two fundamental, and often opposing, principles, such as mind and matter, good and evil, or light and darkness.

Creation ex nihilo: A Latin phrase meaning "creation out of nothing." This is the belief that the universe was created by a divine being from no pre-existing matter or substance.

Theism vs. Pantheism:

These describe the relationship between a creator and the creation.

- Theism is the belief in a transcendent creator God (or gods) who is distinct from the creation but remains actively involved in it.
- Pantheism is the belief that the divine is the universe. God is not a separate creator but is the totality of all existence.

Cultural & Religious Cosmologies

Different cultures throughout history have developed rich cosmologies that reveal a great deal about their values, fears, and understanding of reality. Several of the world's most enduring religious traditions have ancient origins, with their foundational eras stretching back centuries before the Common Era. These models of reality permeate several major world religions that have shaped the course of history.

Ancient Models of the Universe

The tapestry of human spirituality is woven with threads of diverse religious traditions, each with a unique origin story. From the ancient philosophical systems of the East to the monotheistic faiths of the Middle East and the modern spiritual movements of the West, the emergence of these traditions spans millennia and reflects the evolving spiritual consciousness of humanity.

Ancient Eastern Roots

Several of the world's most enduring religious traditions have ancient origins, with their foundational eras stretching back centuries before the Common Era. These models of reality permeate several major world religions that have shaped the course of history.

Zoroastrianism Cosmology

Zoroastrianism, one of the oldest monotheistic religions, was founded by the prophet Zarathustra (or Zoroaster). While there is some scholarly debate, his life is often dated to around the 12th to 6th centuries BCE. This faith, originating in ancient Iran, developed from an earlier Indo-Iranian religious tradition.

Zoroastrianism's cosmology is defined by a strong cosmic dualism. The cosmogony involves creation by a wise, theistic God, Ahura Mazda, who is opposed by an evil spirit, Angra Mainyu. Eschatology foresees a final battle where good triumphs, followed by a final judgment. Soteriology is achieved by siding with good through "Good Thoughts, Good Words, Good Deeds." [LEARN MORE ABOUT ZOROASTRIANISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Tripartite Universe

Asman: The highest heaven, the pure abode of Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord).
Getig: The physical, tangible world of humanity, which is a battleground—a mixture of the good creation of Ahura Mazda and the evil influence of Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit).
Duzakh: The underworld or "House of Lies," a realm of torment for the wicked, presided over by Angra Mainyu.

Frashokereti

The eschatological doctrine of the final renovation of the universe. At the end of time, evil will be vanquished, the cosmos will be perfectly restored to its pure state, and all souls will be purified.

Indian Models of the Universe

Hindu Cosmology

Hinduism, a rich and diverse tradition, has origins that can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE). Unlike many other major religions, Hinduism does not have a single founder but is rather a synthesis of various beliefs and practices that evolved over thousands of years. Key developments include the Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE), during which the foundational sacred texts, the Vedas, were composed.

Hindu traditions are incredibly diverse. Its cosmogony is often cyclical, with universes created and destroyed in endless cycles (Yugas). It can be seen as both theistic (in its worship of deities like Vishnu and Shiva) and pantheistic or monistic (in the concept of Brahman, the ultimate, single reality). Soteriology involves achieving moksha (liberation) from the cycle of rebirth, a journey detailed in a vast and rich mythology, including the epics of the Mahabharata and Ramayana. [LEARN MORE ABOUT HINDUISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Qualified Dualism

Hindu cosmology conceives of the universe as one of countless cosmic eggs (Brahmanda), each undergoing endless cycles of creation, preservation, and dissolution, governed by the supreme reality, Brahman.

Key Concepts:

Brahman (ब्रह्मन्): The ultimate, unchanging reality; the source & substance of all existence.
Ātman (आत्मन्): The individual self or soul, which is fundamentally identical to Brahman.
Samsāra (संसार): The endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, driven by karma.
Karma (कर्म): The universal law of cause and effect, where actions and intentions in one life determine the conditions of future lives.
Moksha (मोक्ष): Liberation or release from samsara. The ultimate spiritual goal.

The Tri-Loka and Fourteen Worlds

The universe is commonly structured into three overarching realms (Loka), which are further subdivided into fourteen worlds (Chaturdasha Bhuvanas).

Urdhva Loka (The 7 Upper Realms): Heavenly worlds inhabited by gods (devas), sages, and enlightened beings. These are realms of great pleasure but are impermanent, earned through good karma. (e.g., Satya-loka, Svar-loka).
Madhya Loka (The Middle Realm): Bhū-loka: The Earth, uniquely positioned as the plane of action (karma). It is from here that moksha can be most effectively sought.
Adho Loka (The 7 Lower Realms): The netherworlds, often equated with hells (Naraka) or subterranean realms. These are planes of suffering and purification for negative karma. (e.g., Pātāla, Rasātala).

The Seven Higher Lokas (Urdhva Lokas):

Bhur-loka: The Earth, where humans and animals reside.
Bhuvar-loka: The intermediate space between Earth and the Sun, inhabited by semi-divine beings.
Swarga-loka: The heaven of Indra, a realm of pleasure and home to various deities.
Mahar-loka: The abode of great sages and enlightened beings like Markandeya.
Jana-loka: The realm of the sons of Brahma.
Tapas-loka: The abode of deities who practice intense austerity.
Satya-loka: The realm of Brahma, considered the highest heaven, where atman are released from rebirth.

The Seven Lower Lokas (Patalas):

Atala: Ruled by the demon Bala.
Vitala: Ruled by Hara-Bhava, an aspect of Shiva, with ganas (attendant spirits).
Sutala: The realm of the demon king Bali.
Talatala: The domain of the demon architect Maya.
Mahatala: The abode of the Nagas, descendants of Kashyapa and Kadru.
Rasatala: The realm of the Danavas and Daityas, who are enemies of the Devas (gods).
Patala: The lowest realm, also known as Naga-loka, ruled by the serpent king Vasuki.

Buddhist Cosmology

Buddhism emerged in the 5th century BCE in the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as the Buddha, meaning "the enlightened one." His teachings on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path offered a way to end suffering and achieve enlightenment (nirvana).

Cosmogony in Buddhism is often set aside as an unanswerable question. The focus is on the human condition within a cyclical existence (samsara). Therefore, the eschatology is not a universal end but an individual's escape from the cycle. Soteriology is the achievement of nirvana (enlightenment) by following the Noble Eightfold Path. While it has a rich mythology of celestial beings and past lives, Buddhism is generally considered non-theistic, as gods are not seen as creators. [LEARN MORE ABOUT BUDDHISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Samsara & Bhavacakra

Buddhist cosmology is primarily a psychological and soteriological map. The structure of the universe is less about geography and more about states of mind, all contained within samsāra. The primary visual representation is the Bhavacakra (भवचक्र), the Wheel of Life.

Key Concepts:

Samsāra: The cycle of rebirth, specifically characterized by dukkha (suffering, unsatisfactoriness). There is no permanent soul, only a continuity of consciousness (anātman or anattā).
Karma: The engine of samsara. Actions motivated by the Three Poisons (greed, hatred, and delusion) lead to unfavorable rebirths.
Nirvāṇa (निर्वाण): "To extinguish." The cessation of suffering and the release from the cycle of samsara by extinguishing the Three Poisons.
Dependent Origination: The principle that all phenomena arise in dependence on other phenomena; the chain of causation that binds beings to samsara.

The Six Realms of Rebirth

The Bhavacakra depicts the six realms where beings are reborn based on their karma. These are understood as both physical places and psychological states.

Deva Realm (Gods): A realm of bliss and pleasure. Its danger is complacency, which leads to exhausting good karma and falling to a lower rebirth.
Asura Realm (Demigods): A realm of power, jealousy, and conflict, marked by a constant struggle with the Devas.
Manushya Realm (Humans): The most precious realm. It has a unique balance of pleasure and pain, which provides the motivation and opportunity to seek Nirvana.
Tiryagyoni Realm (Animals): A realm of ignorance, instinct, and servitude, characterized by the suffering of being hunted and exploited.
Preta Realm (Hungry Ghosts): Characterized by insatiable craving, hunger, and thirst, caused by lifetimes of greed.
Naraka Realm (Hell): A realm of extreme torment (both hot and cold) as a direct consequence of intense hatred and anger. Like all realms, it is impermanent.

Chinese Models of the Universe

Ancient Chinese cosmology, which predates and informs both Confucianism and Daoism, is focused on a unified, dynamic, and relational cosmos. The key goal is not to escape this world, but to harmonize with its underlying patterns. While sharing a common cosmological grammar, Confucianism and Daoism apply these concepts toward different ends.

Shared Foundational Concepts:

Tiān (天): Often translated as "Heaven." An impersonal, self-directing principle of cosmic and moral order.
Dào (道): "The Way" or "The Path." The fundamental, ineffable, creative process of the universe from which all things arise and to which they return.
Qì (氣): The vital life-force or psycho-physical energy that constitutes all things.
Yīn-Yáng (陰陽): The primordial pair of complementary yet opposing forces (e.g., dark/light, passive/active, female/male) whose dynamic balance governs all cosmic processes.

Yin-Yang (陰陽): The Fundamental Duality

The most essential realm of reality is the interplay of Yin and Yang. These are not opposing forces but complementary, interdependent qualities that describe all phenomena.

Yin (陰): Associated with darkness, coolness, passivity, substance, and the feminine. In the body, it corresponds to blood, body fluids, the front (chest/abdomen), and the lower body.
Yang (陽): Associated with light, heat, activity, function, and the masculine. In the body, it corresponds to Qi (vital energy), function, the back, and the upper body.

Enlightenment is understood as the harmonious, dynamic balance between Yin and Yang. All spiritual dissonance is ultimately seen as a manifestation of an imbalance between these two fundamental qualities.

The Realm of Dynamic Change

The Five Elements or Five Phases describe the patterns of movement and transformation in the universe. Rather than static substances, they are five dynamic modes of Qi. As explained in foundational Chinese texts, each element corresponds to realms within nature and within the human body.

Wood (木): Corresponds to Spring, wind, the Liver, and the emotion of anger. It represents growth and upward movement.
Fire (火): Corresponds to Summer, heat, the Heart, and the emotion of joy. It represents expansion and peak activity.
Earth (土): Corresponds to late summer, dampness, the Spleen, and the emotion of worry. It represents stability and nourishment.
Metal (金): Corresponds to Autumn, dryness, the Lungs, and the emotion of grief. It represents contraction and refinement.
Water (水): Corresponds to Winter, cold, the Kidneys, and the emotion of fear. It represents dormancy and potential.

These elements interact in cycles of generation (e.g., Wood fuels Fire) and control (e.g., Water douses Fire), forming a web of relationships that maintains cosmic and spiritual balance.

The Three Realms (三才, San Cai):

This cosmological framework positions human beings as the crucial link between the cosmic and the terrestrial.

Heaven (天, Tian): Represents the cosmos, time, and intangible Yang influences. It governs the upper body, especially the head and the Shen (spirit).
Earth (地, Di): Represents the material world, nourishment, and tangible Yin influences. It governs the lower body and physical substance, or Jing (essence).
Humanity (人, Ren): Stands in the middle, mediating the energies of Heaven and Earth. The path to enlightenment depends on one's ability to live in harmony with the natural cycles of Heaven while drawing nourishment from the Earth.

Together, these interconnected realms form a holistic map where the rhythms of the universe are inseparable from the enlightenment of the individual.

Individual & Universe

In Traditional Chinese Cosmology, the human body is not seen as separate from the universe but as a small-scale reflection of it—a microcosm mirroring the macrocosm.

The "realms of reality" are the universal principles that govern both nature and the path to enlightenment.

According to scholars like Ted Kaptchuk, understanding these cosmic patterns is fundamental to achieving spiritual harmony.

In ancient China, two major philosophical and religious systems emerged around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE:

Confucian Cosmology

Confucianism, founded by the philosopher Confucius (Kǒng Fūzǐ), is a system of ethical, social, and political thought that has profoundly influenced Chinese culture. It can also be seen as a continuation of the much older Shang-Zhou official religion (c. 1600–256 BCE).

Primarily an ethical and social philosophy, it lacks a detailed cosmogony or eschatology, instead focusing on creating harmony in the present world. Its "soteriology" is the secular goal of becoming a virtuous person (junzi) through education and social duty. It operates within a traditional Chinese worldview that includes a form of dualism (yin-yang) under a unifying principle called Tian (Heaven), which acts as an impersonal theistic force. [LEARN MORE ABOUT CONFUCIANISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

The Concept of Tiān (Heaven)

Definition: The supreme cosmic and moral power that governs the universe and human affairs.

It is an impersonal, yet intentional, force.
It is the source of all things and bestows upon humanity its moral nature.

Tiān Mìng (天命) - The Mandate of Heaven:

A political and moral doctrine.

Heaven grants the authority to rule to a just and virtuous leader, the "Son of Heaven" (Tianzi).
This mandate is conditional and depends on the ruler's benevolent and righteous governance.
A corrupt or inept ruler is seen as having lost the Mandate.

Signs of Heaven's displeasure include natural disasters and social unrest. These signs serve as justification for the overthrow of a ruler.

A Reciprocal Relationship

The connection is intimate and responsive, not that of a distant creator and its creation.

Human Impact on Cosmic Order:

The ethical actions of humanity, especially the ruler, are believed to directly influence the natural world.
Moral conduct promotes harmony in the cosmos.
Moral decay can lead to cosmic imbalance and natural calamities.

Key Thinker: Dong Zhongshu (Han Dynasty) was instrumental in synthesizing Confucian ethics with these cosmological theories.

Daoist Cosmology

Daoism (or Taoism), traditionally attributed to the sage Laozi (Lao Tzu), also originated in this period. Its core text, the Dao De Jing, emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao, the natural and universal order. Daoism's roots also extend to prehistoric folk religions in China.

The cosmogony is one of spontaneous creation from the Dao—an ineffable, ultimate principle. This makes Daoism fundamentally monistic and leans heavily towards pantheism, as the Dao is the universe's natural, immanent order. Soteriology involves living in harmony with this natural flow (wu wei), and its eschatology is cyclical, emphasizing return to the Dao rather than a final end. [LEARN MORE ABOUT DAOISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Inner Alchemy (Neidan 內丹):

A practice of meditative self-cultivation aimed at achieving longevity and spiritual transcendence.
In contrast to outer alchemy (Waidan), which used physical substances, Neidan's laboratory is the human body itself.
According to scholars like Fabrizio Pregadio, the goal is to transmute the body's fundamental energies into a state of pure spirit.

Three Dantians (Elixir Fields):

These are the three main energy centers where the alchemical process unfolds:

Lower Dantian (Abdomen): The foundation or "Stove." It stores Jing (essence) and is where the process begins.
Middle Dantian (Chest): The "Cauldron." It refines Qi (vital energy) and is linked to the heart and emotions.
Upper Dantian (Head): The "Palace." It cultivates Shen (spirit), the final stage of transformation toward unity with the Dao.

The Three Treasures:

These are the "raw materials" of inner alchemy, refined in ascending order of subtlety:

Jing (精): Essence. The body's foundational, dense energy source. The first step is to conserve and transform it.
Qi (氣): Vital Energy. The life force that animates the body, refined from Jing.
Shen (神): Spirit. The highest form of energy, associated with consciousness, refined from Qi.

The process can be summarized as: Jing is refined into Qi, Qi is refined into Shen, and Shen is returned to the Dao.

The Microcosmic Orbit:

The primary technique for this transformation is the Microcosmic Orbit (小周天, xiǎo zhōutiān).
In this meditation, the practitioner uses breath and intention to guide Qi from the Lower Dantian, up the spine, over the head, and down the front of the body.
As noted in texts like The Secret of the Golden Flower, this circulation builds and refines energy, ultimately creating the "Immortal Embryo"—a body of pure spirit. ☯️

Abrahamic Models of the Universe

The Three Worlds

The foundational cosmology shared by early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam was inherited from older Ancient Near Eastern beliefs and is also tripartite.

The Heavens (Shamayim): The celestial realm; the abode of God and divine beings (angels).
The Earth (Eretz): The realm of human life, history, and moral action.
The Underworld (Sheol): In early Hebrew thought, Sheol was a neutral, shadowy realm of the dead. It was a place of stillness and quiet for all, not necessarily a place of punishment based on earthly deeds. This concept would later evolve in Christian and Islamic thought into more defined ideas of Heaven and Hell as places of reward and punishment.

Jewish Cosmology

Judaism, the oldest of the Abrahamic faiths, traces its origins back over 3,500 years to the ancient Near East. Its foundational covenant is believed to have been made between God and Abraham. While its roots are ancient, the form known as rabbinic Judaism solidified in the 1st century CE.

The cosmogony begins with a creation ex nihilo, where a single, transcendent God creates the universe in six days. Its soteriology is based on the covenant between God and the Jewish people, lived out by following the commandments of the Torah. The eschatology looks forward to a Messianic Age of peace and a final judgment. These concepts are conveyed through the mythology of the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh). [LEARN MORE ABOUT JUDAISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

The Five Worlds

Within Jewish mysticism, particularly Kabbalah, a complex model developed describing a series of "worlds" (Olamot) or levels of consciousness that bridge the infinite, unknowable God (Ein Sof) and our physical reality. This hierarchical model describes the sequence of divine creation, from pure potential to physical expression.

Adam Kadmon (Primordial Man): The "blueprint" for all creation; a world of pure divine will.
Atziluth (World of Emanation): The realm of pure divinity, where the divine attributes are unified with their source.
Beriah (World of Creation): The realm of the divine throne and pure intellect; the first point where "otherness"
from the divine is perceived.
Yetzirah (World of Formation): The realm of emotions and angelic hosts, where archetypes are given detailed structure.
Assiah (World of Action): The lowest world, containing both a spiritual aspect and our physical, material universe.

The Tree of Life (Etz Chaim)

As described in foundational texts like the Zohar, the Tree of Life (Etz Chaim) is a diagrammatic map of the divine attributes as they manifest within the worlds.

Definition: It consists of 10 divine emanations, called Sefirot (singular: Sefirah), interconnected by 22 paths. The Sefirot represent the archetypal qualities through which God creates and sustains the universe (e.g., Wisdom, Understanding, Mercy, Judgment).
Purpose: The Tree of Life is a primary tool for meditation and theological contemplation. It helps the mystic understand the nature of God, the structure of the cosmos, and the spiritual path of return to the divine source.

The Emanations (Sefirot)

The 10 sefirot, in Kabbalah, are ten divine attributes or emanations through which God interacts with the world and which form the structure of reality. They are not separate from God, but rather distinct aspects of God's infinite essence. These "vessels" or "garments" allow God's light to be channeled and expressed in a way that is comprehensible and accessible to creation.

The sefirot are not static, but rather are interconnected and constantly interacting, creating a dynamic system that reflects the unfolding of creation and the divine plan. They are often depicted on the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, a visual map that illustrates their relationships and interactions.

The Ten Sefirot

Keter (Crown): The highest level of divine will and the source of all emanations.
Chochmah (Wisdom): The first spark of divine wisdom, a source of insight and intuition.
Binah (Understanding): The ability to analyze and comprehend wisdom, leading to deeper knowledge.
Chesed (Loving-kindness): Unconditional love, generosity, and compassion.
Gevurah (Strength/Severity): Divine judgment, boundaries, and limitation.
Tiferet (Beauty/Harmony): Balance, compassion, and the unification of Chesed and Gevurah.
Netzach (Eternity/Victory): Endurance, persistence, and the drive to manifest divine will.
Hod (Splendor/Glory): Humility, gratitude, and the recognition of divine power.
Yesod (Foundation): The connection between all the sefirot and the source of creation.
Malkhut (Sovereignty/Kingdom): The manifestation of divine presence in the world, also known as Shekhinah.

Christian Cosmology

Christianity originated in the mid-1st century CE in the Roman province of Judea with the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. His followers believed him to be the Messiah and the Son of God. The religion spread throughout the Roman Empire, gaining legal status with the Edict of Milan in 313 CE and becoming the state religion later that century.

Sharing its cosmogony with Judaism, Christianity views creation as an act of a theistic, triune God. Soteriology is achieved through faith in Jesus Christ, whose death and resurrection are believed to atone for human sin. The eschatology involves the second coming of Christ, the resurrection of the dead, and a final judgment, all detailed in the mythology of the Bible. While fundamentally monotheistic, it incorporates a strong moral dualism between God and Satan. [LEARN MORE ABOUT CHRISTIANITY / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Christian cosmology combines elements from its Jewish roots with Hellenistic philosophy (Neoplatonism), resulting in several overlapping models of a divinely ordained order. Mainstream Christian eschatology describes three final states or destinations for the soul after death, based on faith and deeds.

Afterlife Destinations

Heaven: A state of eternal life and perfect communion with God, the ultimate reward for the faithful.
Hell: A state of eternal punishment and separation from God, the consequence of final rejection of God's grace.
Purgatory (Catholicism): An intermediate state after death for the purification of sins for those souls who are ultimately destined for Heaven but are not yet fully purified.

Great Chain of Being:

A dominant concept in medieval and Renaissance thought, this is a hierarchical model of all created things.

Structure: God → Angelic Beings → Humanity → Animals → Plants → Minerals.
Humanity's Role: Humans are unique, possessing both a spiritual soul and a material body, thus linking the higher spiritual realms and the lower material realms.

The Three Heavens:

Drawing from a passage by the Apostle Paul (2 Corinthians 12:2), theology often delineates three "heavens."

First Heaven: The terrestrial atmosphere (sky).
Second Heaven: The celestial sphere (sun, moon, stars).
Third Heaven: The spiritual heaven, the direct abode of God and the blessed.

Islamic Cosmology

Islam began in the early 7th century CE in the Arabian Peninsula. Its followers, known as Muslims, believe that the prophet Muhammad received revelations from God (Allah), which are recorded in the Quran. The year 610 CE marks the first revelation, and the migration (Hijra) from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE is the start of the Islamic calendar.

This strictly monotheistic faith holds a cosmogony of creation ex nihilo, where Allah (God) brings the universe into being with a command. Its eschatology is heavily focused on a final Day of Judgment, when all people will be resurrected and judged for their deeds. Soteriology is found in submission to Allah's will, following the tenets described in the Qur'an, which also contains the religion's core mythology. Islam rejects cosmic dualism, affirming God's absolute oneness. [LEARN MORE ABOUT ISLAM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

General & Mystical Views

Islamic cosmology includes a general framework relevant to salvation and a more detailed, mystical model developed by Sufis.

General Islamic Model (3 Domains):

Jannah (The Garden): Heaven, a place of eternal reward, bliss, and closeness to Allah.
Dunya (The Present World): The earthly realm of trial, moral choice, and human life.
Jahannam (The Fire): Hell, a place of punishment for disbelievers and unrepentant sinners.

Sufi Metaphysics

Influential Sufi mystics like Ibn 'Arabi described a series of five "Worlds" or "Presences" (Hadarat) through which divinity descends into manifestation. This model is central to Islamic mystical philosophy and parallels Kabbalistic thought.

The Five Divine Presences

‘Alam-i Hahut (World of "He-ness"): The unknowable, absolute Divine Essence (Dhat).
‘Alam-i Lahut (World of Divinity): The realm of the divine attributes (Sifat), the first self-manifestation of God.
‘Alam-i Jabarut (World of Power): The highest angelic realm of pure spirit and archetypes.
‘Alam-i Malakut (World of Angels/Images): The archetypal, imaginal world where
spiritual realities take on subtle forms.
‘Alam-i Nasut (World of Humanity): The physical, sensory world.

Contemporary & Modern Models

More recent centuries have seen the emergence of new religious and spiritual movements, often reflecting a synthesis of older traditions or a response to modern sensibilities.

Sikh Cosmology

Sikhism was founded in the late 15th century CE in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent by Guru Nanak. This monotheistic religion emphasizes the equality of all humankind and the importance of selfless service, meditation on the one creator, and honest living.

This faith is distinctly panentheistic—believing God is both a transcendent creator (theistic) and immanent within creation. Its cosmogony describes creation as an emanation from the one formless God (Ik Onkar). The worldview is fundamentally monistic, seeing all as a manifestation of the divine. Soteriology aims for liberation from reincarnation by overcoming ego and merging with God, guided by the mythology and teachings of the ten Gurus. [LEARN MORE ABOUT SIKHISM / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Described by Guru Nanak in the Japji Sahib, the Five Khands (realms or stages) are not static places but progressive realms of spiritual awareness through which a soul travels to merge with God (Waheguru).

The Five Khands

Dharam Khand (Realm of Righteous Action): The earth, where one is judged by their deeds.
Gian Khand (Realm of Knowledge): The sphere of expanding consciousness, realizing the vastness of creation.
Saram Khand (Realm of Spiritual Endeavor): The realm of intuition and spiritual beauty, where consciousness is finely honed.
Karam Khand (Realm of Grace): The realm of the spiritually perfected, who are filled with divine grace and power.
Sach Khand (Realm of Truth): The formless abode of God, the ultimate destination where the soul achieves union.

Baha'i Cosmology

The Baha'i Faith originated in 19th-century Persia (modern-day Iran). Its forerunner, the Báb, began preaching in 1844, and Baháʼu'lláh is considered its founder. The Baha'i Faith teaches the essential worth of all religions and the unity of all people.

This religion posits that the universe is an eternal emanation from a single, unknowable, theistic God, thus having no cosmogony or eschatology in the traditional sense. Instead, history is seen as a progressive revelation from God through a series of divine messengers. Soteriology involves recognizing the current messenger (Baháʼu'lláh) and developing spiritual virtues, a process that continues after death. [LEARN MORE ABOUT BAHA'I FAITH / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Baha'i cosmology also describes five realms that bridge the unknowable God & the physical universe, emphasizing the distinction between the Creator & creation.

The Five Realms

The Realm of God: The Unknowable Essence, beyond all comprehension or access.
The Realm of Command: The Primal Will of God or Logos, from which all creation proceeds.
The Realm of Creation (‘Alam-i-Khalq): The entire spiritual universe, including the souls of men.
The Realm of Formation: An intermediate, archetypal world.
The Physical World: The material plane of existence.

Modern Western spiritualities often synthesize concepts from older traditions, particularly shamanism & esotericism, into models that serve as maps for spiritual practice.

Wiccan (Neopagan) Cosmology

Wicca, a modern pagan religion, emerged in the United Kingdom in the 1940s. It was popularized in the 1950s by Gerald Gardner. Wicca draws inspiration from pre-Christian European beliefs and practices and emphasizes a connection with nature.

As a neo-pagan religion, its cosmology is often based on a soft dualism, with a God and Goddess representing complementary polarities in nature. It can be both theistic and pantheistic. The cosmogony and mythology are drawn from various pre-Christian sources. Its eschatology is cyclical, centered on the seasons and reincarnation, and its soteriology focuses on living harmoniously with nature, not on salvation from sin. [LEARN MORE ABOUT WICCA / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

Wiccan Cosmology (Tripartite):

Often rooted in shamanic journeying.

Upper World (Summerland): Realm of the divine, spiritual archetypes, and transcendent consciousness (associated with the God).
Middle World: Our everyday physical reality.
Underworld (Otherworld): Not a place of punishment, but the realm of the subconscious, ancestors, and earthly powers (associated with the Goddess).

New Age Cosmology

New Age Spirituality is a broad and eclectic movement that gained prominence in Western societies in the 1970s. Its origins are multifaceted, drawing from mid-20th-century phenomena such as the counterculture of the 1960s and the Human Potential Movement, as well as older esoteric traditions. It is characterized by a focus on personal transformation, spiritual exploration, and the belief in a coming era of heightened consciousness.

This is an eclectic and decentralized movement. Its cosmology is overwhelmingly monistic and pantheistic, holding that "All is One" and the universe is a manifestation of a single universal consciousness. Its soteriology is personal transformation and the realization of one's own divinity. The eschatology is often transformative, anticipating a "New Age" of heightened consciousness rather than an apocalyptic end. Its mythology borrows freely from global religions and esoteric traditions. [LEARN MORE ABOUT NEW AGE SPIRITUALITY / GET THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES]

New Age Spirituality
(Energetic Planes):

A common eclectic framework.

Physical Plane: The dense, material reality.
Astral Plane: A fluid, non-physical realm of emotion, dreams, and out-of-body experiences.
Spiritual/Causal Plane: Higher planes of consciousness, home to the higher self, ascended masters, and pure cosmic awareness.

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Cosmologies Nature of the Universe