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In the wake of the stock market crash of October 1929, people were growing increasingly anxious about the security of their money. Wealthy people were pulling their investment assets out of the economy, and consumers overall were spending less and less money. Bankruptcies were becoming more common and confidence in financial institutions such as banks was being rapidly eroded. Some 650 banks failed in 1929; the number would rise to more than 1,300 the following year.

Three recent actions highlight an emerging trend of First Nations peoples bringing climate-related claims. Recent decisions in two of these actions have set significant precedents both in Australia and internationally. The third matter is a class action that is scheduled for hearing before the Federal Court of Australia in the second half of 2023, which also has the potential to set a significant precedent going forward. The matters demonstrate a high degree of sophistication and collaboration among interest groups globally in invoking court processes and public international law mechanisms to agitate climate-related issues.

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This is a landmark decision as it comprises the first instance of an international body finding that a nation state has violated international human rights law through inadequate climate-related adaptation measures. The decision also marks the first time that First Nations peoples' right to culture has been found to be at risk from climate impacts. The decision is likely to pave the way for other similar human rights complaints and actions globally and in Australia. (It is notable in this regard that the complainants were represented by ClientEarth, a global environmental organization). In particular, the decision is likely to be of Torres Strait Islanders' significance in jurisdictions where human rights legislation is in force (in Australia this includes Queensland, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory). It may also influence the manner in which stakeholders, including activist investors and regulators, assess corporate performance against voluntary commitments to comply with human rights principles such as those set out in the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.

Interestingly, Mr. Tipakalippa's claim followed an action that was commenced in the Seoul Central District Court by other leaders of indigenous Tiwi Islander and Larrakia peoples (one of whom is a Korean citizen) seeking to injunct Korea's export credit agencies, Korea Trade Insurance Corporation (\"K-SURE\") and the Export-Import Bank of Korea (\"KEXIM\"), from financing Santos' joint venture partner, SK E&S's, investment in the Barossa gas field project. The claim invoked the environmental protections set forth in Article 35 of the Korean Constitution, along with Article 100 of the National Finance Act, which permits citizens to demand corrective measures against unlawful spending of public funds.

Interestingly, Mr. Tipakalippa's claim followed an action that was commenced in the Seoul Central District Court by other leaders of indigenous Tiwi Islander and Larrakia peoples (one of whom is a Korean citizen) seeking to injunct Korea's export credit agencies, Korea Trade Insurance Corporation ("K-SURE") and the Export-Import Bank of Korea ("KEXIM"), from financing Santos' joint venture partner, SK E&S's, investment in the Barossa gas field project. The claim invoked the environmental protections set forth in Article 35 of the Korean Constitution, along with Article 100 of the National Finance Act, which permits citizens to demand corrective measures against unlawful spending of public funds.

In the fall of 1930, the economy appeared poised for recovery. The previous three contractions, in 1920, 1923, and 1926, had lasted an average of fifteen months.1 The downturn that began in the summer of 1929 had lasted for fifteen months. A rapid and robust recovery was anticipated. In November 1930, however, a series of crises among commercial banks turned what had been a typical recession into the beginning of the Great Depression.

When the crises began, over 8,000 commercial banks belonged to the Federal Reserve System, but nearly 16,000 did not. Those nonmember banks operated in an environment similar to that which existed before the Federal Reserve was established in 1914. That environment harbored the causes of banking crises.

The crisis also hit the Eighth District, headquartered in St. Louis. The leaders of the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis had a narrower view of their responsibilities and refused to rediscount loans for the purpose of accommodating nonmember banks. During the crisis, the St. Louis Fed limited discount lending and refused to assist nonmember institutions.

Outcomes differed between the districts. After the crisis, in the Sixth District, the economic contraction slowed and recovery began. In the Eighth District, hundreds of banks failed. Lending declined. Business faltered and unemployment rose (Richardson and Troost 2009; Jalil 2014; Ziebarth 2013).

The banking crisis that began with the collapse of Caldwell subsided in early 1931. A new crisis erupted in June 1931, this time in the city of Chicago. Once again, depositor runs beset networks of nonmember banks, some of which had invested in assets that had declined in value. In Chicago, the problem particularly involved real estate.

These regional banking crises harmed the national economy in several ways. The crises disrupted the process of credit creation, increasing the prices that firms paid for working capital and preventing some firms from acquiring credit at any price (Bernanke 1983). This process was particularly pronounced in regions, like the Eighth Federal Reserve District, where large numbers of banks failed, and the information that those banks possessed about who in their community was a good and a bad credit risk disappeared.

The crises also generated deflation because they convinced bankers to accumulate reserves and the public to hoard cash (Friedman and Schwartz 1964). Hoarding reduced the proportion of the monetary base deposited in banks. Accumulating reserves reduced the proportion of deposits that banks loaned out. Together, hoarding and accumulating reduced the supply of money, particularly the amount of money in checking accounts, which at the time were the principal means of payment for goods and services. As the stock of money declined, the prices of goods necessarily followed.

Deflation harmed the economy in many ways. Deflation forced banks, firms, and debtors into bankruptcy; distorted economic decision-making; reduced consumption; and increased unemployment. The gold standard transmitted deflation to other industrial nations, which contributed to financial crises in those countries, and reflected back onto the United States, exacerbating a deflationary feedback loop.

A heat wave occurs when there is high pressure in the atmosphere that forces hot air downward and traps it near the ground. This high-pressure system acts like a lock that prevents the hot air from rising. Consequently, rain cannot form and the hot air gets hotter.

Heat waves can be classified into different categories depending on the intensity of heat stress. The Australian Government's Bureau of Meteorology groups heatwaves into three categories: low-intensity, severe, and extreme. While the low-intensity heatwaves are more frequent, the severe and extreme heatwaves are more challenging to manage.

Up to 30% of wheat supply in some provinces in India has been lost due to the heat wave this year. Heat waves can also trigger other natural disasters such as drought, bushfires, and forest fires which consequently damage crops and livestock. This can lead to insufficient supply, price hikes and even food insecurity.

During a heat wave, energy consumption often skyrockets to cool down the temperature. Air conditioning is constantly used where accessible, leading to power shortages in many places during extreme heat events. Coal and fuel consumption, the main resources for electricity generation in South Asia, has been ramped up. The increased greenhouse gas emissions exacerbate climate change impacts in the long term, triggering more heat waves.

The action plan should also include training and preparedness for health workers to recognize and treat symptoms of heat-related illness and ensure availability of cooling appliances in the hospitals during the heat wave season. 2351a5e196