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The science of morality may refer to various forms of ethical naturalism grounding morality in rational, empirical consideration of the natural world.[1] It is sometimes framed as using the scientific approach to determine what is right and wrong, in contrast to the widespread belief that "science has nothing to say on the subject of human values".[2]

Moral science may refer to the consideration of what is best for, and how to maximize the flourishing of, either particular individuals[citation needed] or all conscious creatures.[3][4] It has been proposed that "morality" can be appropriately defined on the basis of fundamental premises necessary for any empirical, secular, or philosophical discussion and that societies can use the methods of science to provide answers to moral questions.[5][6]

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The norms advocated by moral scientists (e.g. rights to abortion, euthanasia, and drug liberalization under certain circumstances) would be founded upon the shifting and growing collection of human understanding.[7] Even with science's admitted degree of ignorance, and the various semantic issues, moral scientists can meaningfully discuss things as being almost certainly "better" or "worse" for promoting flourishing.[8]

W. V. O. Quine advocated naturalizing epistemology by looking to natural sciences like psychology for a full explanation of knowledge.[further explanation needed] His work contributed to a resurgence of moral naturalism in the last half of the 20th century. Paul Kurtz, who believes that the careful, secular pursuit of normative rules is vital to society, coined the term eupraxophy to refer to his approach to normative ethics. Steven Pinker, Sam Harris, and Peter Singer believe that we learn what is right and wrong through reason and empirical methodology.[10][11]

Maria Ossowska thought that sociology was inextricably related to philosophical reflections on morality, including normative ethics. She proposed that science analyse: (a) existing social norms and their history, (b) the psychology of morality, and the way that individuals interact with moral matters and prescriptions, and (c) the sociology of morality.[12]

The theory and methods of a normative science of morality are explicitly discussed in Joseph Daleiden's The Science of Morality: The Individual, Community, and Future Generations (1998). Daleiden's book, in contrast to Harris, extensively discusses the relevant philosophical literature. In The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values, Sam Harris's goal is to show how moral truth can be backed by "science", or more specifically, empirical knowledge, critical thinking, philosophy, but most controversially, the scientific method.

Daleiden and Leonard Carmichael warn that science is probabilistic, and that certainty is not possible. One should therefore expect that moral prescriptions will change as humans gain understanding.[15][note 1]

Harris argues that moral science does not imply an "Orwellian future" with "scientists at every door". Instead, Harris imagines data about normative moral issues being shared in the same way as other sciences (e.g. peer-reviewed journals on medicine).[19]

Daleiden provides examples of how science can use empirical evidence to assess the effect that specific behaviours can have on the well-being of individuals and society with regard to various moral issues. He argues that science supports decriminalization and regulation of drugs, euthanasia under some circumstances, and the permission of sexual behaviours that are not tolerated in some cultures (he cites homosexuality as an example). Daleiden further argues that in seeking to reduce human suffering, abortion should not only be permissible, but at times a moral obligation (as in the case of a mother of a potential child who would face the probability of much suffering). Like all moral claims in his book, however, Daleiden is adamant that these decisions remain grounded in, and contingent on empirical evidence.[7][note 2]

The ideas of cultural relativity, to Daleiden, do offer some lessons: investigators must be careful not to judge a person's behaviour without understanding the environmental context. An action may be necessary and more moral once we are aware of circumstances.[28] However, Daleiden emphasizes that this does not mean all ethical norms or systems are equally effective at promoting flourishing[28] and he often offers the equal treatment of women as a reliably superior norm, wherever it is practiced.

The idea of a normative science of morality has met with many criticisms from scientists and philosophers. Critics include physicist Sean M. Carroll, who argues that morality cannot be part of science.[29] He and other critics cite the widely held "fact-value distinction", that the scientific method cannot answer "moral" questions, although it can describe the norms of different cultures. In contrast, moral scientists defend the position that such a division between values and scientific facts ("moral relativism") is not only arbitrary and illusory, but impeding progress towards taking action against documented cases of human rights violations in different cultures.[30]

Ethical arguments about caregiver responsibility and the limits of client autonomy rely on best evidence about the risks and benefits of medical interventions. But when the evidence is unclear, or when the peer-reviewed literature presents conflicting accounts of the evidence, how are clinicians and their clients to recommend or decide the best course of action? Conflicting evidence about the outcomes of home and hospital birth in the peer-reviewed literature offers an opportunity to explore this question. We present the contrary evidence and describe the social and cultural elements that influence the production of the science of birth, including professional, publication, and critical bias. We then consider how the science of birth has been used an misused in making ethical arguments about preferred place of birth. We conclude with a number of recommendations about the responsible use of the evidence, arguing for an "ethics of information" that can be drawn on to guide caregivers and clients in the use of evidence for clinical decision making.

Svend Brinkmann is Professor of Psychology in the Department of Communication and Psychology at the University of Aalborg, Denmark. His research areas are general psychology and qualitative methods, and he is co-director of the Center for Qualitative Studies at the University of Aalborg and also editor of the journal Qualitative Studies. Svend Brinkmann has published books in Danish about the mind, identity and the philosopher and psychologist John Dewey, and he is co-author (with Steinar Kvale) of the English language book InterViews. In addition, he has published several journal articles about the philosophy of psychology, qualitative methods, moral inquiry, and approaches to human science such as pragmatism, hermeneutics, and discourse analysis.

This book proposes an explicit recognition of criminology as a moral science: a philosophically textured appreciation of the presence and role of values in people's reasoning and motivation, set within an empirically rigorous social-scientific account. This endeavour requires input from both criminologists and philosophers, and careful dialogue between them. Criminology as a Moral Science provides such a dialogue, not least about the so-called 'fact-value distinction', but also about substantive topics such as guilt and shame.

The book also provides philosophically-informed accounts of morality in practice in several criminological contexts: these include whistleblowing practices within a police service; the dilemmas of mothers about who and what to tell about a partner's imprisonment; and how persistent offenders begin to try to 'turn their lives around' to desist from crime. The issues raised go to the heart of some currently pressing topics within criminology, notably the development of 'evidence-based practice', which requires some kind of stable bridge to be built between research evidence ('facts') and proposals for policy ('evaluative recommendations').

Welcome to the Museum of the Creative Process, a center of creative discovery, innovative research, and intellectual retreat. Located in historic Manchester Village on the estate of the Wilburton Inn, the Museum brings together a global array of both modern and traditional creativity. More than just an art center, the Museum is dedicated to understanding the psychological properties of creativity, bridging art and science to gain insight into human relations, interpersonal and intrapsychic conflict.

Such moral dilemmas, and the paradoxes they create, have been studied for centuries. The Morality Lab at Boston College applies modern behavioral and neuroimaging methods to identify the psychological and brain bases of moral judgments. This work is conducted with typical participants as well as those with brain lesions who have selective cognitive deficits.

At a time in which our society is politically polarized and divided about a myriad of issues concerning governance, immigration, and national identity, some would argue the need for convincing moral knowledge and widely accepted understandings of decency and the common good has seldom been greater.

Blaine Fowers, professor of educational and psychological studies in the University of Miami School of Education and Human Development, believes science can. For the past 35 years, he has been integrating moral questions into his work in psychology and he has spoken with dozens of like-minded academics. 006ab0faaa