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I am an economist at the RAND Corporation.
I received my Ph.D. in Economics from Harvard University in May 2020, specializing in labor and public economics. Prior to my Ph.D., received a MSc from the London School of Economics and worked in the U.S. Treasury Department and J.P. Morgan.
I am an economist at the RAND Corporation.
I received my Ph.D. in Economics from Harvard University in May 2020, specializing in labor and public economics. Prior to my Ph.D., received a MSc from the London School of Economics and worked in the U.S. Treasury Department and J.P. Morgan.
My current research examines mechanisms for gaps in labor market outcomes, with a particular focus on underrepresented groups. I also study how information impacts decision-making in consumer and labor-market contexts. My policy-focused work also examines the impact of artificial intelligence.
My current research examines mechanisms for gaps in labor market outcomes, with a particular focus on underrepresented groups. I also study how information impacts decision-making in consumer and labor-market contexts. My policy-focused work also examines the impact of artificial intelligence.
Research Papers
Research Papers
“The Gender Gap in Performance Reviews”
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
Volume 214, pages 459-492 (October 2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2023.07.039
Performance evaluations are correlated with compensation, promotion, and career decisions in the labor market. Using data from Reflektive, formerly an employee performance management company, I examine gender differences in over 100,000 performance evaluations for 170 companies across 12 different industries. I find that women rate their performance lower than men, and these differences persist when accounting for external manager and peer reviews of the worker’s performance. The gender gap in how women versus men rate themselves as compared to their managers persists across different types of industries, firms, reviewers, and workers, highlighting the generalizability of the results. These findings have implications for self-promotion in other high-stakes labor market settings.
“The Gender Gap in Performance Reviews”
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
Volume 214, pages 459-492 (October 2023). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2023.07.039
Performance evaluations are correlated with compensation, promotion, and career decisions in the labor market. Using data from Reflektive, formerly an employee performance management company, I examine gender differences in over 100,000 performance evaluations for 170 companies across 12 different industries. I find that women rate their performance lower than men, and these differences persist when accounting for external manager and peer reviews of the worker’s performance. The gender gap in how women versus men rate themselves as compared to their managers persists across different types of industries, firms, reviewers, and workers, highlighting the generalizability of the results. These findings have implications for self-promotion in other high-stakes labor market settings.
“Words Matter: Experimental Evidence from Job Applications” (with Johannes Hallermeier, Uber & Alison Stein, Uber)
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
Volume 225, pages 348-391 (September 2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2024.06.013
If women are more sensitive to skill requirements in job ads, does lowering the bar draw in relatively more women and increase diversity in the applicant pool? We examine this question by randomizing 60,000 viewers into one of two job ad versions for over 600 corporate jobs at Uber, where the treatment removed optional and superfluous qualifications. There are two main findings. First, job seekers of both genders respond to qualifications: applications increase by 7%, owing to similar increases in the number of applications from men and women. Second, women are more sensitive to job match quality, i.e., their fit with the position. Reducing the qualifications draws in less skilled women and causes an outflow of some highly skilled women. Conversely, the treatment draws in men from across the skill distribution, including the upper end. We confirm that job match quality is more important to females than males in a separate, large-scale survey using the RAND American Life Panel. These results highlight that sensitivity to listed requirements is complex, and simply lowering the skill requirements of job postings is not guaranteed to increase applicant diversity.
“Words Matter: Experimental Evidence from Job Applications” (with Johannes Hallermeier, Uber & Alison Stein, Uber)
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization
Volume 225, pages 348-391 (September 2024). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2024.06.013
If women are more sensitive to skill requirements in job ads, does lowering the bar draw in relatively more women and increase diversity in the applicant pool? We examine this question by randomizing 60,000 viewers into one of two job ad versions for over 600 corporate jobs at Uber, where the treatment removed optional and superfluous qualifications. There are two main findings. First, job seekers of both genders respond to qualifications: applications increase by 7%, owing to similar increases in the number of applications from men and women. Second, women are more sensitive to job match quality, i.e., their fit with the position. Reducing the qualifications draws in less skilled women and causes an outflow of some highly skilled women. Conversely, the treatment draws in men from across the skill distribution, including the upper end. We confirm that job match quality is more important to females than males in a separate, large-scale survey using the RAND American Life Panel. These results highlight that sensitivity to listed requirements is complex, and simply lowering the skill requirements of job postings is not guaranteed to increase applicant diversity.
“The Changing Nature of Entrepreneurship in the U.S.: Evidence from Shopify”
(with Benjamin K. Master, RAND Corporation; Brian Phillips, RAND Corporation; Gabriel Hassler, RAND Corporation)
This paper presents novel descriptive evidence regarding the growing number of entrepreneurs leveraging online platforms in the United States. Shopify is one of these major online platforms, representing approximately 10% of the U.S. e-commerce market. Using rich administrative and survey data from businesses using Shopify’s platform, we find that traditionally underrepresented entrepreneurs, specifically Black and female entrepreneurs, are overrepresented in the Shopify sample relative to publicly available data, highlighting that online platforms may reduce barriers to entrepreneurship. Approximately 50% of Shopify businesses in our data experience positive revenue growth between their first and second years on the platform, while only 4% exit the platform. While minority business owners have lower revenue growth than their counterparts, they report significantly higher value from supports and tools used to grow their Shopify business. These findings evince how online platforms are enabling entry into entrepreneurship, particularly for underrepresented groups.
“The Changing Nature of Entrepreneurship in the U.S.: Evidence from Shopify”
(with Benjamin K. Master, RAND Corporation; Brian Phillips, RAND Corporation; Gabriel Hassler, RAND Corporation)
This paper presents novel descriptive evidence regarding the growing number of entrepreneurs leveraging online platforms in the United States. Shopify is one of these major online platforms, representing approximately 10% of the U.S. e-commerce market. Using rich administrative and survey data from businesses using Shopify’s platform, we find that traditionally underrepresented entrepreneurs, specifically Black and female entrepreneurs, are overrepresented in the Shopify sample relative to publicly available data, highlighting that online platforms may reduce barriers to entrepreneurship. Approximately 50% of Shopify businesses in our data experience positive revenue growth between their first and second years on the platform, while only 4% exit the platform. While minority business owners have lower revenue growth than their counterparts, they report significantly higher value from supports and tools used to grow their Shopify business. These findings evince how online platforms are enabling entry into entrepreneurship, particularly for underrepresented groups.
“What's in the Fine Print? Paying the Price for Mandatory Arbitration” (with Katherine Carman & Virginia Zhang)
Fine print can obscure key clauses, such as mandatory arbitration (MA). Despite their ubiquity, little is known about demand for contracts without MA. In a large-scale experiment, we find that consumers are willing to pay, on average, 3% to 14% of the product’s purchase price to avoid MA clauses in consumer contracts. This distribution is bimodal: some have a high willingness-to-pay to avoid MA, while others have a negative WTP, i.e., they would pay more to have a contract with mandatory arbitration. Those with a negative WTP are more likely to be less educated, unemployed, and female; textual analyses indicate that they may not understand the implications of arbitration or may value arbitration’s useful features relative to its restrictiveness. Clearer information changes preferences: WTP to avoid MA increases by an additional $1 to $3 on average, or 1% to 5% of the product’s purchase price. These results suggest there is a missing market for changes in the fine print of contracts.
“What's in the Fine Print? Paying the Price for Mandatory Arbitration” (with Katherine Carman & Virginia Zhang)
Fine print can obscure key clauses, such as mandatory arbitration (MA). Despite their ubiquity, little is known about demand for contracts without MA. In a large-scale experiment, we find that consumers are willing to pay, on average, 3% to 14% of the product’s purchase price to avoid MA clauses in consumer contracts. This distribution is bimodal: some have a high willingness-to-pay to avoid MA, while others have a negative WTP, i.e., they would pay more to have a contract with mandatory arbitration. Those with a negative WTP are more likely to be less educated, unemployed, and female; textual analyses indicate that they may not understand the implications of arbitration or may value arbitration’s useful features relative to its restrictiveness. Clearer information changes preferences: WTP to avoid MA increases by an additional $1 to $3 on average, or 1% to 5% of the product’s purchase price. These results suggest there is a missing market for changes in the fine print of contracts.
“Beyond the Fine Print: Mandatory Arbitration in Employment Contracts” (with Katherine Carman & Virginia Zhang)
Despite mandatory arbitration (MA) appearing in nearly 60% of private sector employment contracts, little is known about workers’ demand for alternatives. In a large-scale experiment, we find that workers are, on average, willing to forgo 4.3% of their salary to avoid MA clauses, though preferences are highly polarized: some would give up as much as 20% of their salary, while others prefer contracts with MA and are willing to pay for an MA clause. Black workers are more likely to prefer MA, while women are more likely to pay to avoid MA. Providing clearer information about MA increases the share of workers who view it as unfair, especially in occupations where MA is more common. These findings reveal substantial and diverse demand for alternatives to MA, suggesting that current contract practices often misalign with worker preferences. Greater choice and transparency around MA clauses could better meet worker needs and enhance perceptions of fairness in the labor market.
“Beyond the Fine Print: Mandatory Arbitration in Employment Contracts” (with Katherine Carman & Virginia Zhang)
Despite mandatory arbitration (MA) appearing in nearly 60% of private sector employment contracts, little is known about workers’ demand for alternatives. In a large-scale experiment, we find that workers are, on average, willing to forgo 4.3% of their salary to avoid MA clauses, though preferences are highly polarized: some would give up as much as 20% of their salary, while others prefer contracts with MA and are willing to pay for an MA clause. Black workers are more likely to prefer MA, while women are more likely to pay to avoid MA. Providing clearer information about MA increases the share of workers who view it as unfair, especially in occupations where MA is more common. These findings reveal substantial and diverse demand for alternatives to MA, suggesting that current contract practices often misalign with worker preferences. Greater choice and transparency around MA clauses could better meet worker needs and enhance perceptions of fairness in the labor market.
“Workers' First Jobs and Long-Term Wage Growth: Variation by Gender and Race/Ethnicity” (with Christine Mulhern, Isaac Opper, Prateek Puri & Elizabeth Roth)
“Workers' First Jobs and Long-Term Wage Growth: Variation by Gender and Race/Ethnicity” (with Christine Mulhern, Isaac Opper, Prateek Puri & Elizabeth Roth)
We use data on a large, longitudinal sample of U.S. workers to examine how workers’ wage growth varies across early career occupations. We find that wage growth tends to be highest for workers who start in occupations with high average starting wages, a fact that leads to increasing wage inequality. Wage growth varies notably by gender, race, and ethnicity and these disparities are not fully explained by initial occupation choices; we see large disparities in wage growth by gender, race, and ethnicity within most occupations, even conditional on worker and firm characteristics. Finally, we examine how wage growth and gaps by gender, race, and ethnicity vary based on the skills composition of starting occupations.
We use data on a large, longitudinal sample of U.S. workers to examine how workers’ wage growth varies across early career occupations. We find that wage growth tends to be highest for workers who start in occupations with high average starting wages, a fact that leads to increasing wage inequality. Wage growth varies notably by gender, race, and ethnicity and these disparities are not fully explained by initial occupation choices; we see large disparities in wage growth by gender, race, and ethnicity within most occupations, even conditional on worker and firm characteristics. Finally, we examine how wage growth and gaps by gender, race, and ethnicity vary based on the skills composition of starting occupations.
RAND Publications & Commentary
RAND Publications & Commentary
“Wage Growth and Initial Occupations: Examining Differences Across Worker Demographics Using Longitudinal Data” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2024). Lisa Abraham, Christine Mulhern, Isaac Opper, Prateek Puri, Elizabeth Roth.
“Improving Pathways to Entrepreneurship: An Exploration of the Experiences of Black and Female Small-Business Owners in the E-Commerce Space” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2024). Lisa Abraham, Ben Master, Gabriel Hassler, Brian Phillips.
“The Experiences of Online Entrepreneurs in the United States" Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2024). Lisa Abraham, Ben Master”, Gabriel Hassler, Brian Phillips.
“Living Wages in Los Angeles County’s Homeless Response Sector” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2023). Lisa Abraham, Sarah B. Hunter, Samantha Matthews, Alex Sizemore.
“Living Wages in Los Angeles County’s Homeless Response Sector” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2023). Lisa Abraham, Sarah B. Hunter, Samantha Matthews, Alex Sizemore.
Press: LA Times Editorial Board; LA Times; NPR News for Southern California; LAist; Spectrum News; Westside Current; KNX 1070 Radio, CA; KNX News; KFI AM 640; RadioKorea.com; Patch; LA Post; Hey SoCal; Flipboard; MyNews LA; Los Angeles Daily News; La Opinión; Vigour Times; Antelope Valley Press; San Gabriel Valley Tribune; Giving Compass; California County News
“Exploring Ohio's Pipeline of Manufacturing Workers” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2023). Lisa Abraham, Christine Mulhern, and Lucas Greer.
“Strengthening the Manufacturing Workforce in Ohio” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2023). Lisa Abraham, Christine Mulhern, and Lucas Greer.
“The Changing Nature of Entrepreneurship” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2021). Ben Master and Lisa Abraham.
“Equity in Entrepreneurship: Challenges and Opportunities” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2021). Lisa Abraham and Ben Master.
“Entrepreneurship in America: Challenges and Opportunities” Santa Monica, CA: RAND (2020). Lisa Abraham and Ben Master.
“COVID-19 Gave Managers a Look at Our Home Lives. Will They Now Penalize Women?” Santa Monica, CA: Commentary, The RAND Blog (2020). Lisa Abraham and Kathryn Edwards.
Funding
Funding
Arnold Ventures ($100K), 2025
Conrad N. Hilton Foundation, with David Powell ($250K), 2025
RAND Institute for Civil Justice Grant, with Katherine Carman ($150K), 2023-25
Russell Sage Foundation Grant, with Linh Tô & Neil Thakral ($75K), 2023-24
William T. Grant Foundation Research Grant, with Linh Tô & Neil Thakral ($418K), 2022-25
Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, with Benjamin Master ($400K), 2022-25
RAND Initiated Research, with Prateek Puri ($55K), 2023
Lumina Foundation, with Christine Mulhern ($250K), 2022-23
WorkRise (Urban Institute), with Christine Mulhern ($176K), 2022-24
RAND Epstein Family Veterans Policy Research Institute, with Jeff Wenger ($100K), 2022-25
Social Justice Partners Los Angeles, with Sarah Hunter ($159K), 2022-23
Older Papers:
Older Papers:
“The Gender Earnings Gap within Firm and Job: Evidence from Online Self-Reports” (with Matthew Gibson)
“The Gender Earnings Gap within Firm and Job: Evidence from Online Self-Reports” (with Matthew Gibson)
Using a proprietary dataset of online self-reports, we provide evidence on the gender wage gap after controlling for detailed occupational- and firm-fixed effects, typically not permissible in publicly available data. We validate the sample by comparing it to Occupational Employment Statistics and Current Population Survey data. Estimates of the gender wage gap range from 5 to 7 percent after including detailed controls, smaller than in prior studies. This work illuminates the value of confidential, proprietary data to more accurately quantify existing gender differences in the labor market.
Using a proprietary dataset of online self-reports, we provide evidence on the gender wage gap after controlling for detailed occupational- and firm-fixed effects, typically not permissible in publicly available data. We validate the sample by comparing it to Occupational Employment Statistics and Current Population Survey data. Estimates of the gender wage gap range from 5 to 7 percent after including detailed controls, smaller than in prior studies. This work illuminates the value of confidential, proprietary data to more accurately quantify existing gender differences in the labor market.
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