Brimstone fire, lava ground(how hot it is, oh, how hot it is, oh)
De warriors nuh fear no death
Nor any form of terror oh
Pagan did mistake nuh make
Dey'll be a sorry dem made an error
The Hawaiian Volcano Observatory used multiple satellite remote sensing sources to help monitor the June 27, 2014, lava flow from Kilauea volcano that entered the village of Pahoa in late 2014 and early 2015. Satellite data included Landsat, Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER), Earth-Observing-1 (EO-1), and WorldView images. EO-1 Advanced Land Imager data were available with very short latency due to cooperation with the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
I Wayne Lava Ground 2005
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Still to be worked out after the monument's creation was the questionof boundaries. Establishment recognized the need to preserve andprotect the lava formations along the rift zone, yet ignorance of theisolated district remained the primary barrier to designatingappropriate lands. Work to rectify the problem began in 1925 when MaxGleissner of the USGS, with the assistance of the Idaho Bureau of Minesand Geology, conducted a topographical survey of the monument. In 1926Stearns himself returned to complete his earlier geologicalreconnaissance and to begin a boundary revision study. In March 1927,he submitted his recommendations for boundary adjustments to the ParkService, enlarging the monument by about thirty-five square miles. Compared with the original boundary, this one gave the area "a moreregular and geometric shape," hence making it "much more easily definedand administered." Furthermore, the document's main purpose was toexclude any undesirable land, and more importantly, to include "all ofthe scenic and [scientifically] important features that were leftoutside of the original boundary." [1]
In doing so, Stearns chose lands that were significant but alsoeconomically worthless; the geologist emphasized that except for aquarter mile, all of the proposed addition was covered with lava. Theexpanded boundaries, for instance, embraced such well-known sites asAmphitheater Cave, the Bridge of Tears, a large section of VermillionChasm, and all of the Blue Dragon Lava Flows. But "the most importantand critical extension" was a "single square mile on the northwestcorner of the monument." Section 34, T. 2 N., R. 24 E. contained GrassyCone, a small section of the aa highway flow, and more significantly,access to a feasible water supply for camping. Except for scatteredwaterholes in the lavas, the monument was otherwise arid, and thegeologist predicted water shortages and contamination, and hardship fortourists and campers alike. Thus, Stearns proposed that the ParkService create a campground in the more shaded and lush basin belowGrassy Cone, file surface rights to Little Cottonwood Creek, build areservoir at the spring above the Martin Mine, and pipe the water tomonument land. Rather than have the Park Service acquire the watersource for itself, Stearns believed his method would cause the leastamount of conflict. He had chosen a section of the public domain thatpossessed mostly valueless timber, mineral, and grazing land, which wasnot the case a few miles north. [2]
As part of its mission to preserve features unique to a volcanicenvironment and of scientific importance, the monument added a kipuka, asmall island of relatively pristine grassland surrounded by more recentlava flows, in 1962. Range scientists discovered the Carey Kipuka inthe mid-1950s; it lay about four miles southwest of the monument'ssouthwestern corner, on Bureau of Land Management land.
The idea for the addition grew out of a 1956 study conducted by Dr.F. R. Fosberg, from the National Academy of Sciences, and Dr. E. W.Tisdale, an ecologist from the University of Idaho. Both men believedthat the island of grass deserved protection as part of Craters of theMoon National Monument because it was of great scientific value for "thestudy of grassland ecology." In southern Idaho, "undisturbed areasshowing the climatic vegetation climax of grasslands" were fastbecoming rare due to grazing and agriculture. The kipuka's "presentpristine condition" was the result of a surrounding expanse of roughlava, which had rendered the area inaccessible to domestic livestock. Furthermore, there was little incentive to graze here since amplevegetation existed outside the lava buffer, and there was a shortage ofwater within it. [47]
3. The area between the kipuka and the national monument consistsmainly of raw lava with little or no grazing value. It should bepossible to connect the area without withdrawing any appreciable amountof grazing land. [48]
Park Service Director Conrad L. Wirth gave his blessing to theproposal and ordered an agency investigation. On September 3, 1958,Superintendent Floyd Henderson and Grand Teton National Park BiologistDr. Adolph Murie conducted the initial investigation. [50] In their jointreport of October 17, 1959 Murie and Henderson confirmed Fosberg andTisdale's findings, and recommended the kipuka's addition to themonument. They noted that it was a rare opportunity to preserveunmodified grasslands (and mature soils) in the grazing regions of theSnake River Plain. The investigators suggested adding 7,583 acres,contiguous to the monument, in order to shelter the grass island by anatural barrier of raw lava formations. Of that land only four hundredacres, exclusive of the kipuka proper, contained grasslands--marginal atbest--which could possibly cause conflict with grazing interests. Thekipuka, moreover, merited addition because of its importance to themonument's purpose; it was "wholly scientific." It possessed "nooutstanding scenic, or known prehistoric or historic features, and nodirect interpretation or the ordinary kind of recreation possibilities." In fact, its inaccessibility was its best attribute, being the reasonfor its undisturbed state and ecological value. All of this posed noadministrative costs or burdens. But the clock was running and it wasonly a matter of time until this grassland was engulfed by grazing orother uses under current BLM management. Its protection could not beguaranteed, and Park Service acquisition was imperative. [51]
Having considered these questions already, the Park Service was ableto satisfy the senator's concerns. Yet Church's queries revealed somemisconceptions about the addition. Phrases like an "impenetrablebarrier" of rough lava encircling the grassland, for example, caused thekipuka to appear indestructible and not worthy of park protection, butthese descriptions helped explain the site's "pristine" state. Furthermore, the narrow focus of the kipuka as a "natural laboratory"stressed the site's primary importance but ran counter to the Service'straditional focus of visitor development and education. After thisinterchange, the agency revised its justification somewhat, underscoringthe kipuka's scientific importance due to its isolation, but alsoemphasizing how its addition would "greatly enhance the interpretive andpreservation objectives of the monument." [58]
In May 1965, Superintendent Roger Contor, joined by a small masterplan team, studied a 42,600-acre roadless area in the monument forwilderness classification. The group completed the study in ten days,and their preliminary proposal determined that 41,475 acres weresuitable for wilderness; after the Washington office reviewed theproposal, it decreased the acreage to 40,800, altering boundaries toconform with survey points rather than natural features. The proposedvolcanic wilderness comprised approximately 80 percent of the monument'sland base, and 96 percent of the area studied. All of it lay south ofU.S. Highway 20-26-93A, excluding the semi-developed zone of roads,trails, and administrative facilities in the monument's northwesterncorner. To name the area, Contor chose a Shoshoni term, Tu'Timbaba, or"Black Rock Overpass," referring to the thousand feet the lava landscaperises above adjacent valleys. [62]
The main attraction of the new road was the tree molds of TrenchMortar Flat, the only features not accessible by car. While thisextension would complete the motorist tour of the monument, preservationof these fragile lava formations outweighed the importance of visitoraccess. In a December 10, 1966 memorandum Fritz requested a new masterplan study to enlarge the wilderness boundary to include Big CinderButte and prevent further development. Assistant Director ofCooperative Activities, Theodor R. Swem, rejected the superintendent'sproposition. No reason warranted revision of the recent master plan; ithad been agreed to at all levels of the administration. And moreimportantly, "the plan provides a reasonable balance between wildernessand non-wilderness use and it also provides opportunities for increasedand improved interpretation of the area." He urged Regional DirectorJohn Rutter to bear this in mind in order to "overcome the difficulties"posed by Fritz's suggestion. After learning that his superiors wouldnot entertain any boundary changes, the superintendent reluctantlyagreed to the agency's proposal. [74]
would disperse visitors to relieve congestion on the present roadsystem; such congestion is expected to become critical in future years. Exhibits along the road would interpret such features as tree molds,lava tubes, fissures, ecology and plant succession. Visitors unable tomake long hiking trips would have access to all of the major types ofvolcanic features on this self-guiding interpretive road.
In 1969, Craters of the Moon Superintendent Paul Fritz rekindled theproposal for the monument's expansion and national park status. [86] Fritzwas spurred by the research of volcanologist Dr. Fred Bullard in themid-1960s, who asserted that the lava flows surrounding the monumentcontained "the entire story of vulcanism...with only an active volcanomissing." Further influencing his vision was the 1969 NASA astronauts'one-day training mission at the monument. Accompanying the astronautsas they familiarized themselves with a lunar landscape, Fritz realizedfor the first time the importance of "what was out there beyond themonument." [87] be457b7860
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