Some recent work in computational modelling attempts to implementinformal logic models of natural-language reasoning. It suggests thatdefeasible (non-monotonic) logic, probability theory and othernon-classical formal frameworks may be well suited to this task.

Informal logic is a recent discipline. It has some precedents inthose nineteenth century works on Logic and Rhetoric which aim toraise general standards of reasoning through public education (see,e.g., Whatley [1830], [1844]). But informal logic is a child of the1960s. It is ultimately rooted in its social and political movements,which were characterized by a call for an education more "relevant" tothe issues of the day.

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Insofar as informal logic remains an attempt to develop a logic thatcan be used in everyday reasoning, it and computational modelling willremain separate theoretical endeavours. That said, both depend on anunderstanding of the way that informal reasoning works and should beassessed. This makes collaboration fruitful. In the long run, it maybe the formal modelling this inspires which may reestablish strongerlinks between formal and informal logic (links that will depend onmore sophisticated logics than classical logic, which are moresensitive to the different facets of ordinary reasoning). The resultsmay foster the development of informal logic within a more integratedlogic (or argumentation theory) that recognizes the differencesbetween formal and informal logic, but recognizes an overarching modelof reasoning that can explain both endeavours.

Fuzzy logic works with membership values in a way that mimics Boolean logic. To this end, replacements for basic operators AND, OR, NOT must be available. There are several ways to this. A common replacement is called the .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}Zadeh operators:

The biggest question in this application area is how much useful information can be derived when using fuzzy logic. A major challenge is how to derive the required fuzzy data. This is even more challenging when one has to elicit such data from humans (usually, patients). As has been said .mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}

How to elicit fuzzy data, and how to validate the accuracy of the data is still an ongoing effort, strongly related to the application of fuzzy logic. The problem of assessing the quality of fuzzy data is a difficult one. This is why fuzzy logic is a highly promising possibility within the medical decision making application area but still requires more research to achieve its full potential.[25] Although the concept of using fuzzy logic in medical decision making is exciting, there are still several challenges that fuzzy approaches face within the medical decision making framework.

Aristotle's views profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. The influence of his physical science extended from late antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and was not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics were developed. Some of Aristotle's zoological observations found in his biology, such as on the hectocotyl (reproductive) arm of the octopus, were disbelieved until the 19th century. He influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophies during the Middle Ages, as well as Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. Aristotle was revered among medieval Muslim scholars as "The First Teacher", and among medieval Christians like Thomas Aquinas as simply "The Philosopher", while the poet Dante called him "the master of those who know". His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, and were studied by medieval scholars such as Peter Abelard and Jean Buridan. Aristotle's influence on logic continued well into the 19th century. In addition, his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics.

This period in Athens, between 335 and 323 BC, is when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.[12] He wrote many dialogues, of which only fragments have survived. Those works that have survived are in treatise form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication; they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle studied and made significant contributions to "logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance, and theatre."[15]

What is today called Aristotelian logic with its types of syllogism (methods of logical argument),[26] Aristotle himself would have labelled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, because it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into a set of six books called the Organon around 40 BC by Andronicus of Rhodes or others among his followers.[28] The books are:

The word "metaphysics" appears to have been coined by the first century AD editor who assembled various small selections of Aristotle's works to the treatise we know by the name Metaphysics.[34] Aristotle called it "first philosophy", and distinguished it from mathematics and natural science (physics) as the contemplative (theoretik) philosophy which is "theological" and studies the divine. He wrote in his Metaphysics (1026a16):

The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the Peripatetic school. Aristotle's students included Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius of Phalerum, Eudemos of Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason of Phocis, Nicomachus, and Theophrastus. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"[155]

The first medical teacher at Alexandria, Herophilus of Chalcedon, corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries, noting that the latter pulse while the former do not.[157] Though a few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. Ernst Mayr states that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."[158]

Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist.[154] Early in life, he documented the binary numeral system (base 2), then revisited that system throughout his career.[155] While Leibniz was examining other cultures to compare his metaphysical views, he encountered an ancient Chinese book I Ching. Leibniz interpreted a diagram which showed yin and yang and corresponded it to a zero and one.[156] More information can be found in the Sinophile section. Leibniz had similarities with Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz and Thomas Harriot, who independently developed the binary system, as he was familiar with their works on the binary system.[157] Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz worked extensively on logarithms including logarithms with base 2.[158] Thomas Harriot's manuscripts contained a table of binary numbers and their notation, which demonstrated that any number could be written on a base 2 system.[159] Regardless, Leibniz simplified the binary system and articulated logical properties such as conjunction, disjunction, negation, identity, inclusion, and the empty set.[160] He anticipated Lagrangian interpolation and algorithmic information theory. His calculus ratiocinator anticipated aspects of the universal Turing machine. In 1961, Norbert Wiener suggested that Leibniz should be considered the patron saint of cybernetics.[161] Wiener is quoted with "Indeed, the general idea of a computing machine is nothing but a mechanization of Leibniz's Calculus Ratiocinator."[162]

When style works best, ideas flow logically, sources are credited appropriately, and papers are organized predictably and consistently. People are described using language that affirms their worth and dignity. Authors plan for ethical compliance and report critical details of their research protocol to allow readers to evaluate findings and other researchers to potentially replicate the studies. Tables and figures present data in an engaging, consistent manner. be457b7860

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