Jumping or leaping is a form of locomotion or movement in which an organism or non-living (e.g., robotic) mechanical system propels itself through the air along a ballistic trajectory. Jumping can be distinguished from running, galloping and other gaits where the entire body is temporarily airborne, by the relatively long duration of the aerial phase and high angle of initial launch.
Some animals, such as the kangaroo, employ jumping (commonly called hopping in this instance) as their primary form of locomotion, while others, such as frogs, use it only as a means to escape predators. Jumping is also a key feature of various activities and sports, including the long jump, high jump and show jumping.
Jumping
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All jumping involves the application of force against a substrate, which in turn generates a reactive force that propels the jumper away from the substrate. Any solid or liquid capable of producing an opposing force can serve as a substrate, including ground or water. Examples of the latter include dolphins performing traveling jumps, and Indian skitter frogs executing standing jumps from water.
Jumping organisms are rarely subject to significant aerodynamic forces and, as a result, their jumps are governed by the basic physical laws of ballistic trajectories. Consequently, while a bird may jump into the air to initiate flight, no movement it performs once airborne is considered jumping, as the initial jump conditions no longer dictate its flight path.
Muscles (or other actuators in non-living systems) do physical work, adding kinetic energy to the jumper's body over the course of a jump's propulsive phase. This results in a kinetic energy at launch that is proportional to the square of the jumper's speed. The more work the muscles do, the greater the launch velocity and thus the greater the acceleration and the shorter the time interval of the jump's propulsive phase.
Mechanical power (work per unit time) and the distance over which that power is applied (e.g., leg length) are the key determinants of jump distance and height. As a result, many jumping animals have long legs and muscles that are optimized for maximal power according to the force-velocity relationship of muscles. The maximum power output of muscles is limited, however. To circumvent this limitation, many jumping species slowly pre-stretch elastic elements, such as tendons or apodemes, to store work as strain energy. Such elastic elements can release energy at a much higher rate (higher power) than equivalent muscle mass, thus increasing launch energy to levels beyond what muscle alone is capable of.
A jumper may be either stationary or moving when initiating a jump. In a jump from stationary (i.e., a standing jump), all of the work required to accelerate the body through launch is done in a single movement. In a moving jump or running jump, the jumper introduces additional vertical velocity at launch while conserving as much horizontal momentum as possible. Unlike stationary jumps, in which the jumper's kinetic energy at launch is solely due to the jump movement, moving jumps have a higher energy that results from the inclusion of the horizontal velocity preceding the jump. Consequently, jumpers are able to jump greater distances when starting from a run.
Animals use a wide variety of anatomical adaptations for jumping. These adaptations are exclusively concerned with the launch, as any post-launch method of extending range or controlling the jump must use aerodynamic forces, and thus is considered gliding or parachuting.
Aquatic species rarely display any particular specializations for jumping. Those that are good jumpers usually are primarily adapted for speed, and execute moving jumps by simply swimming to the surface at a high velocity. A few primarily aquatic species that can jump while on land, such as mud skippers, do so via a flick of the tail.
In terrestrial animals, the primary propulsive structure is the legs, though a few species use their tails. Typical characteristics of jumping species include long legs, large leg muscles, and additional limb elements.
Long legs increase the time and distance over which a jumping animal can push against the substrate, thus allowing more power and faster, farther jumps. Large leg muscles can generate greater force, resulting in improved jumping performance. In addition to elongated leg elements, many jumping animals have modified foot and ankle bones that are elongated and possess additional joints, effectively adding more segments to the limb and even more length.
Frogs are an excellent example of all three trends: frog legs can be nearly twice the body length, leg muscles may account for up to twenty percent of body weight, and they have not only lengthened the foot, shin and thigh, but extended the ankle bones into another limb joint and similarly extended the hip bones and gained mobility at the sacrum for a second 'extra joint'. As a result, frogs are the undisputed champion jumpers of vertebrates, leaping over fifty body lengths, a distance of more than eight feet.[1]
Grasshoppers use elastic energy storage to increase jumping distance. Although power output is a principal determinant of jump distance (as noted above), physiological constraints limit muscle power to approximately 375 Watts per kilogram of muscle.[2] To overcome this limitation, grasshoppers anchor their legs via an internal "catch mechanism" while their muscles stretch an elastic apodeme (similar to a vertebrate tendon). When the catch is released, the apodeme rapidly releases its energy. Because the apodeme releases energy more quickly than muscle, its power output exceeds that of the muscle that produced the energy.
This is analogous to a human throwing an arrow by hand versus using a bow; the use of elastic storage (the bow) allows the muscles to operate closer to isometric on the force-velocity curve. This enables the muscles to do work over a longer time and thus produce more energy than they otherwise could, while the elastic element releases that work faster than the muscles can. The use of elastic energy storage has been found in jumping mammals as well as in frogs, with commensurate increases in power ranging from two to seven times that of equivalent muscle mass.[3]
Leaping gaits, which are distinct from running gaits (see Locomotion), include cantering, galloping, and stotting or pronging.[5] Some sources also distinguish bounding as a cyclical motion of repeated jumps, used to maintain energy from one jump to the next.[6]
The (official) male standing long jump world record is 371 cm, and the female record is 292 cm (both as of June 2023). These were achieved by Arne Tvervaag and Annelin Mannes respectively.[10] Standing long jump distances range between 146.2 cm and 219.8 cm (10th to 90th percentile) for 18 year old men, and between 100 cm and 157 cm for 18 year old women.[11]
It is also noted that jumping development in children has a direct relationship with age. As children grow older, it is seen that their jumping abilities in all forms also increase. Jumping development is more easily identifiable in children rather than adults due to the fact that there are less physical differences at a younger age. Adults of the same age may be vastly different in terms of physicality and athleticism making it difficult to see how age affects jumping ability.[13]
Calling all Worm Rangers, researchers NEED YOUR HELP documenting jumping worms across the state. We are asking you to look around your yard, gardens, mulched and composted areas and tell us what you find or do not find.
Jumping worms are the latest invasive worm to arrive in Minnesota. They live in the tops few inches soil and alter soil structure and chemistry through there feeding and burrowing behaviors. Found in garden beds, mulch and compost piles they represent a threat to the health of our managed and wild landscapes.
Worm Rangers investigating their distribution and dispersal mechanisms throughout Minnesota. Jumping worms are spread through composting,horticulture, landscaping and bait. The overall goal of this project is to characterize the status of the jumping worm invasion in Minnesota. You will be trained to look at their distribution and dispersal.
Exploring your yard and gardens is key! Take the self-guided training or contact project staff to learn more about them and how to collect data. If you suspect you have jumping worms take a photo. You can still participate this fall along with the 2021 growing season.
Researchers tracking the jumping worm need to know where it is in Minnesota, and where it is not. Please help us collect data by taking observations in your own gardens and communities, especially if you are in the areas of Rochester, the Twin Cities, Duluth, and Saint Cloud.
Jumping worms, are non-native, invasive earthworms first confirmed in Wisconsin in 2013. Native to eastern Asia, they present challenges to homeowners, gardeners and forest managers. Jumping worms get their name from their behavior. When disturbed, they thrash, spring into the air and can even shed their tails to escape.
Endemic to parts of Asia, jumping worms (Amynthas spp.) first arrived in North America sometime in the late 19th century, probably in imported plants and other horticultural and agricultural materials. Since then, jumping worms have become widespread across much of the northeast, southeast and midwestern U.S. In 2013, jumping worms were confirmed for the first time in the upper Midwest, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.
Surprisingly, all earthworms in Wisconsin are non-native. There have been no native earthworms in Wisconsin since the last glacier moved through the state thousands of years ago, scouring the landscape down to the bedrock. The familiar earthworms we see in our gardens and on our fishing hooks originated in Europe, brought here by settlers. Although all earthworms can harm landscapes and forests, jumping worms may pose a bigger threat than European worms. 152ee80cbc
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