Programming languages have been classified into several programming language generations. Historically, this classification was used to indicate increasing power of programming styles. Later writers have somewhat redefined the meanings as distinctions previously seen as important became less significant to current practice.
3GLs are much more machine-independent (portable) and more programmer-friendly. This includes features like improved support for aggregate data types and expressing concepts in a way that favors the programmer, not the computer. A third-generation language improves over a second-generation language by having the computer take care of non-essential details. 3GLs are more abstract than previous generations of languages, and thus can be considered higher-level languages than their first- and second-generation counterparts. First introduced in the late 1950s, Fortran, ALGOL, and COBOL are examples of early 3GLs.
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Most popular general-purpose languages today, such as C, C++, C#, Java, BASIC and Pascal, are also third-generation languages, although each of these languages can be further subdivided into other categories based on other contemporary traits. Most 3GLs support structured programming. Many support object-oriented programming. Traits like these are more often used to describe a language rather than just being a 3GL.
Fourth-generation languages tend to be specialized toward very specific programming domains.[4][5] 4GLs may include support for database management, report generation, mathematical optimization, GUI development, or web development.
A fifth-generation programming language (5GL) is any programming language based on problem-solving using constraints given to the program, rather than using an algorithm written by a programmer.[8] Most constraint-based and logic programming languages and some other declarative languages are fifth-generation languages. It uses Artificial Intelligence or (AI) technology to solve problems on its own.
While fourth-generation programming languages are designed to build specific programs, fifth-generation languages are designed to make the computer solve a given problem without the programmer. This way, the user only needs to worry about what problems need to be solved and what conditions need to be met, without worrying about how to implement a routine or algorithm to solve them. Fifth-generation languages are used mainly in Artificial Intelligence or AI research. OPS5 and Mercury are examples of fifth-generation languages,[9] as is ICAD, which was built upon Lisp. KL-ONE is an example of a related idea, a frame language.
The terms "first-generation" and "second-generation" programming language were not used prior to the coining of the term "third-generation"; none of these three terms are mentioned in early compendiums of programming languages. The introduction of a third generation of computer technology coincided with the creation of a new generation of programming languages. The marketing for this generational shift in machines correlated with several important changes in what were called high-level programming languages, discussed below, giving technical content to the second/third-generation distinction among high-level programming languages as well while retroactively renaming Machine code languages as first generation, and assembly languages as second generation.
Initially, all programming languages at a higher level than assembly were termed "third-generation", but later on, the term "fourth-generation" was introduced to try to differentiate the (then) new declarative languages (such as Prolog and domain-specific languages) which claimed to operate at an even higher level, and in a domain even closer to the user (e.g. at a natural-language level) than the original, imperative high-level languages such as Pascal, C, ALGOL, Fortran, BASIC, etc.
"Generational" classification of high-level languages (third generation and later) was never fully precise and was later perhaps abandoned, with more precise classifications gaining common usage, such as object-oriented, declarative and functional. C gave rise to C++ and later to Java and C#; Lisp to CLOS; Ada to Ada 2012; and even COBOL to COBOL 2002. New languages have emerged in that "generation" as well.
The concept of language generations, sometimes called levels, is closely connected to the advances in technology that brought about computer generations. The four generations of languages are machine language, assembly language, high-level language, and very high-level language.
Programming of the first stored-program computer systems was performed in machine language. This is the lowest level of programming language. All the commands and data values are given in ones and zeros, corresponding to the "on" and "off" electrical states in a computer.
In the 1950s each computer had its own native language, and programmers had primitive systems for combining numbers to representinstructions such as add and compare. Similarities exist between different brands of machine language. For example, they all have instructions for the four basic arithmetic operations, for comparing pairs of numbers, and for repeating instructions. Different brands of machine language are different languages, however, and a computer cannot understand programs written in another machine language.
Assembly languages are symbolic programming languages that use symbolic notation to represent machine-language instructions. Symbolic programming languages are strongly connected to machine language and the internal architecture of the computer system on which they are used. They are called low-level languages because they are so closely related to the machines. Nearly all computer systems have an assembly language available for use.
Assembly language was developed in the mid-1950s and was considered a great leap forward because it uses mnemonic codes, or easy-to-remember abbreviations, rather than numbers. Examples of these codes include A for add, CMP for compare, MP for multiply, and STO for storing information into memory. Like programs written in other programming languages,assembly language programs consist of a series of individual statements or instructions that tell the computer what to do.
Although assembly languages are an improvement over machine language, they still require that the programmer think on the machine's level. Because the level of detail required to write assembly programs is very high, it is easy to make mistakes. Although some programmers still use assembly language to write parts of applications where speed of execution is critical, such as video games, most programmers today think and write in very high-level or fourth-generation languages.
Third-generation languages spurred the great increase in data processing that occurred in the 1960s and 1970s. During that time, the number of mainframes in use increased from hundreds to tens of thousands. The impact of third-generation languages on society has been huge.
A programming language in which the program statements are not closely related to the internal characteristics of the computer is called a high-level language. As a general rule, one statement in a high-level programming language will expand into several machine language instructions. This is in contrast to assembly languages, where one statement normally generates one machine language instruction. High-level programming languages were developed to make programming easier and less error-prone.
High-level languages fall somewhere between natural languages and machine languages, and were developed to make the programming process more efficient. Languages like FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) and COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) made it possible for scientists and business people to write programs using familiar terms instead of obscure machine instructions. Programmers can now pick from hundreds of high-level languages.
The first widespread use of high-level languages in the early 1960s changed programming into something quite different from what it had been. Programs were written in an English-like manner, making them more convenient to use and giving the programmer more time to address a client's problems.
Although high-level languages relieve the programmer of demanding details, they do not provide the flexibility available in low-level languages. A few high-level languages like C and FORTH combine some of the flexibility of assembly language with the power of high-level languages, but these languages are not well suited to the beginning programmer.
With each generation, programming languages have become easier to use and more like natural languages. However, fourth-generation languages (4GLs) seem to sever connections with the prior generation because they are basically nonprocedural. Procedural languages tell the computer how a task is done: add this, compare that, do this if something is true, and so on, in a very specific step-by-step manner. In a nonprocedural language, users define only what they want the computer to do, without supplying all the details of how something is to be done.
Smalltalk, developed in the 1970s by Alan Kay at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center, was the first object-oriented programming language. In object-oriented programming, a program is no longer a series of instructions, but a collection of objects. These objects contain both data and instructions, are assigned to classes, and can perform specific tasks. With this approach, programmers can build programs from pre-existing objects and can use features from one program in another. This results in faster development time, reduced maintenance costs, and improved flexibility for future revisions. Some examples of object-oriented languages are: C, Java, and Ada (the language developed by the U.S. Department of Defense).
A programming language is a set of written symbols that instructs the computer hardware to perform specific tasks. Typically, a programming language consists of a vocabulary and a set of rules (called syntax) that the programmer must learn. be457b7860
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