Both the term and the specific exercise method were developed by Dr Kenneth H. Cooper, an exercise physiologist, and Col. Pauline Potts, a physical therapist, both of the United States Air Force. Cooper, an exercise enthusiast, was puzzled about why some people with good muscular strength were prone to perform poorly at activities such as long-distance running, swimming, and bicycling. He began using a bicycle ergometer to measure sustained performance in terms of a person's ability to use oxygen. In 1968, he published Aerobics, which included exercise programs using running, walking, swimming and bicycling. At the time the book was published there was increasing awareness of the need for increased exercise due to widespread weakness and inactivity. Cooper published a mass-market version The New Aerobics in 1979.[1][2]

Aerobic dancing was invented by Jacki Sorensen in 1969, inspired by Cooper's book. Sorensen began teaching her method and spreading it throughout the U.S. in the hands of hundreds of instructors in the 1970s. At the same time, Judi Missett's Jazzercise was taking off in the form of dance studio franchises in the U.S.[3] Aerobics gained greater popularity, spreading worldwide after the release of Jane Fonda's Workout video in 1982, sparking an industry boom.[4]

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Step aerobics was developed independently by a few American exercise instructors working separately in the mid-1980s,[5] especially Gin Miller and Connie Collins Williams in Atlanta, and Cathe Friedrich in New Jersey. Shoe manufacturer Reebok popularized the exercise method, selling a plastic step unit starting in 1990.

The "basic" step involves raising one foot onto the step, then the other so that they are both on the step, then stepping the first foot back, followed by the second. A "right basic" would involve stepping right foot up, then the left, then returning to the floor alternating right then left.

Some instructors switch immediately between different moves, for example between a right basic and a left basic without any intervening moves, effectively "tapping" the foot without shifting weight; tap-free or smooth stepping alternates the feet without "taps"

Many instructors will prepare a set of moves that will be executed together to form the choreography of the class. Usually, the choreography will be timed to 32 beats in a set, ideally switching legs so that the set can be repeated in a mirrored fashion. A set may consist of many different moves and the different moves may have different durations. For example, a basic step as described above takes 4 beats (for the 4 steps the person takes). Similarly, the "knee up" move also takes 4 beats. Another common move, the repeater knee, is an 8-beat move.

In freestyle aerobics, the instructor choreographs the routine and adjusts it to the needs and wants of her/his class. There is often no difference between base movements in freestyle and pre-choreographed programs.

Aerobic gymnastics, also known as sport aerobics and competitive aerobics, may combine complicated choreography, rhythmic and acrobatic gymnastics with elements of aerobics.[8] Performance is divided into categories by age, sex and groups (individual, mixed pairs and trios) and are judged on the following elements: dynamic and static strength, jumps and leaps, kicks, balance and flexibility. Ten exercises are mandatory: four consecutive high leg kicks, patterns. A maximum of ten elements from following families are allowed: push-ups, supports and balances, kicks and splits, jumps and leaps. Elements of tumbling such as handsprings, handstands, back flips, and aerial somersaults are prohibited. Scoring is by judging of artistic quality, creativity, execution, and difficulty of routines. Sport aerobics has state, national, and international competitions, but is not an Olympic sport.

Aerobic exercise (also known as endurance activities,[1] cardio or cardio-respiratory exercise) is physical exercise[2] of low to high intensity that depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process.[3] "Aerobic" is defined as "relating to, involving, or requiring oxygen",[4] and refers to the use of oxygen to meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic metabolism adequately.[5] Aerobic exercise is performed by repeating sequences of light-to-moderate intensity activities for extended periods of time.[3] Examples of cardiovascular or aerobic exercise are medium- to long-distance running or jogging, swimming, cycling, stair climbing and walking.[6]

For reducing the risk of health issues, 2.5 hours of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise per week is recommended.[7][8][9] At the same time, even doing an hour and a quarter (11 minutes/day) of exercise can reduce the risk of early death, cardiovascular disease, stroke, and cancer.[10][11]

Aerobic exercise may be better referred to as "solely aerobic", as it is designed to be low-intensity enough that all carbohydrates are aerobically turned into energy via mitochondrial ATP production. Mitochondria are organelles that rely on oxygen for the metabolism of carbs, proteins, and fats. Aerobic exercise causes a remodeling of mitochondrial cells within the tissues of the liver and heart.[12]

Archibald Hill, a British physiologist, introduced the concepts of maximal oxygen uptake and oxygen debt in 1922.[13][14] German physician Otto Meyerhof and Hill shared the 1922 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their independent work related to muscle energy metabolism.[15] Building on this work, scientists began measuring oxygen consumption during exercise. Henry Taylor at the University of Minnesota and Swedish scientists Per-Olof strand and Bengt Saltin made notable contributions in the 1950s and 60s.[16] Contributions were also made by the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, Copenhagen Muscle Research Centre as well as various German universities.[17][18]

After World War II, health-oriented recreational activities such as jogging became popular.[19] The Royal Canadian Air Force Exercise Plans, developed by Dr. Bill Orban and published in 1961, helped to launch modern fitness culture.[20][21]

Physical therapists Col. Pauline Potts and Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper,[22] both of the United States Air Force, advocated the concept of aerobic exercise. In the 1960s, Cooper started research into preventive medicine. He conducted the first extensive research on aerobic exercise on over 5,000 U.S. Air Force personnel[23][24] after becoming intrigued by the belief that exercise can preserve one's health. In 1966 he coined the term "aerobics". Two years later, in 1968, he published a book of the same name. In 1970, he created the Cooper Institute for non-profit research and education devoted to preventive medicine. He published a mass-market version of his book The New Aerobics in 1979. Cooper encouraged millions into becoming active and is now known as the "father of aerobics".[25][26] Cooper's book inspired Jacki Sorensen to create aerobic dancing exercise routines, which grew in popularity in the 1970s in the U.S., and at the same time, Judi Missett developed and expanded Jazzercise.

Aerobics at home became popular worldwide after the release of Jane Fonda's Workout exercise video in 1982.[28][29] Step aerobics was popular in the 1990s, driven by a step product and program from Reebok shoes.

Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms.[2] In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while activities with brief bursts of energetic movement within longer periods of casual movement may not be aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently "aerobic", while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness. It is most common for aerobic exercises to involve the leg muscles, primarily or exclusively. There are some exceptions. For example, rowing to distances of 2,000 meters or more is an aerobic sport that exercises several major muscle groups, including those of the legs, abdominals, chest, and arms.

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and short-distance running are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle.[34]

New research on the endocrine functions of contracting muscles has shown that both aerobic and anaerobic exercise promote the secretion of myokines, with attendant benefits including growth of new tissue, tissue repair, and various anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of developing various inflammatory diseases.[35] Myokine secretion in turn is dependent on the amount of muscle contracted, and the duration and intensity of contraction. As such, both types of exercise produce endocrine benefits.

In almost all conditions, anaerobic exercise is accompanied by aerobic (in the presence of oxygen) exercises because the less efficient anaerobic metabolism must supplement the aerobic system due to energy demands that exceed the aerobic system's capacity. During anaerobic exercise, the body must generate energy through other processes than aerobic metabolism, including glycolysis paired with lactic acid fermentation, and the phosphocreatine system to generate energy in the form of ATP. Common kettlebell exercises combine aerobic and anaerobic aspects. Allowing 24 hours of recovery between aerobic and strength exercise leads to greater fitness.[36][37]

Depending on the intensity of exercise, the body preferentially utilizes certain fuel forms to meet energy demands. The two main fuel sources for aerobic exercise in the body include fat (in the form of adipose tissue) and glycogen. At lower intensity aerobic exercise, the body preferentially uses fat as its main fuel source for cellular respiration, however as intensity increases the body preferentially uses glycogen stored in the muscles and liver or other carbohydrates, as it is a quicker source of energy.[38] Aerobic exercise at low or moderate intensity is not a very efficient way to lose fat in comparison to high intensity aerobic exercise. Lipolysis (hydrolysis of triglyceride into fatty acids),[39] not fat burning (conversion of fatty acid to carbon dioxide), explains the intensity-dependent fat mass reduction. It has been shown that fatty acid is consumed for wound healing, where moderate intensity exercise does not produce significant damage like high intensity exercise. The size of adipose tissue is determined by the magnitude of nutrient competition from muscle and lungs for cell regeneration and energy replenishment after exercise.[40][failed verification] 152ee80cbc

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