One of the very first tricks that aspiring landscape photographers want to learn is how to make flowing water smooth using long exposure photography. The idea of capturing smooth water seems quite simple. Just use a long exposure setting on your mirrorless or DSLR camera and you will be set. However it is not always easy to capture smooth flowing water the way you envision it.
In the Folly Beach Pier image below, I wanted to smooth and level out the ocean waves. Because I shot it at midday, this required a 45-second camera exposure. The longer you leave the shutter open, the smoother the ocean water gets. Using a super long exposure to smooth out the water you can even introduce reflections that would otherwise be obscured by the motion of the waves. Specialty filters are necessary for this type of photography in the middle of the day.
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For this landscape image shot in the Virgin River Narrows of Zion National Park, the amount of available light dictated my shutter speed. This landscape was taken with a five-second camera exposure due to the low light situation and my choice of a low ISO. A five second shutter speed is not necessary to achieve flowing water in an image. My point is that you do not need a lot of neutral density filters to get ten-second exposures if you are at the right location.
You can capture flowing water at nearly any shutter speed, but how the results will look, will vary depending on the length of the exposure. As your shutter speed increases it will result in removing all motion in the water as seen in the 45-second landscape photo from Folley Beach above.
The one photography filter you do need to effectively capture flowing water, however, is a circular polarizer. A circular polarizer serves more than one purpose when photographing flowing water. Not only does it darken the image giving you a longer shutter speed, it can also reduce the glare from the objects within your frame.
The following is a simple example of the same scene shot with the polarizer off and then on and turned to full strength. Notice how the colors of the wet rocks and the details under water really stand out when you use the polarizer. I never leave home without one.
If you are attempting to capture smooth flowing water in the middle of the day using long exposures you will need Neutral density filters (ND Filters). ND filter will effectively reduce the light entering your camera and will allow you to use a longer shutter speed. You can also change your shutter speed by using a smaller aperture setting on your DSLR or mirrorless camera when the conditions permit.
Successfully capturing flowing water using long exposure photography requires precise control over your shutter speed. Even the most seasoned landscape photographer has to experiment with different shutter speeds to get the right amount of details in the flowing water. If you are a beginner landscape photographer, I would suggest you go out with your equipment and start practicing. You will find that with a bit of practice you can capture stunning landscape photos of flowing water.
Interactions between metal compounds and saltwater often generate electricity, but this is usually the result of a chemical reaction in which one or more compounds are converted to new compounds. Reactions like these are what is at work inside batteries.
In contrast, the phenomenon discovered by Tom Miller, Caltech professor of chemistry, and Franz Geiger, Dow Professor of Chemistry at Northwestern, does not involve chemical reactions, but rather converts the kinetic energy of flowing saltwater into electricity.
The mechanism behind the electricity generation is complex, involving ion adsorption and desorption, but it essentially works like this: The ions present in saltwater attract electrons in the iron beneath the layer of rust. As the saltwater flows, so do those ions, and through that attractive force, they drag the electrons in the iron along with them, generating an electrical current.
"For example, tidal energy, or things bobbing in the ocean, like buoys, could be used for passive electrical energy conversion," he says. "You have saltwater flowing in your veins in periodic pulses. That could be used to generate electricity for powering implants."
At some point along their path to the sea, rivers have typically gained enough water and width to preclude interlocking tree canopies. This open-canopy state frequently coincides with somewhat lower gradient landscapes. Streams at this point are warmer, and less abundantly supplied with leaves than was the case upstream. These larger streams remain well oxygenated because air is entrained by turbulent flow in riffles. Open canopy, and fairly shallow water, means that light can reach the river benthos, increasing in-stream primary productivity.
Very large rivers are usually low gradient and very wide, resulting in negligible influence of riparian canopy in terms of shading and leaf-litter input. Water currents keep fine solids in suspension, reducing light penetration to the benthos. Organic matter in suspension is by far the largest food base in these very large rivers.
Changes in physical habitat and food base from river source to mouth profoundly influence biological communities. Aquatic ecologists classify benthic macroinvertebrates into functional feeding groups: shredders that eat leaves, collectors consuming fine particulates, grazers that scrape periphyton from substrates, and predators of animal prey (Cummins & Klug 1979). Smaller temperate streams tend to be co-dominated by shredders primarily consuming leaf litter, and collectors consuming particles (Figure 1). As canopies open in larger streams, grazers become common with increased periphyton production. With less canopy cover in wider streams, shredder abundance is reduced. Collectors utilize particles in streams of all sizes, but they dominate benthic communities in larger streams where suspended organic matter is common. Predators represent a small but important fraction of benthic communities in rivers of all sizes.
The fish zonation concept (Thienemann 1925, cited by Schmutz et al. 2000) generalized Western European river habitats based upon a predictable sequence of dominant fish species (Huet 1959). Analogous fish community responses to river slope and size have been found in African, South American, and many North American streams (McGarvey & Hughes 2008). Larger rivers can accommodate larger fish as well as small fish, and so the size range of fish increases as rivers become deeper. River discharge is the volume of water passing a particular location per unit time. The species-discharge relationship is analogous to the species-area relationship, and describes how fish diversity increases with river size (Figure 2; McGarvey & Milton 2008).
The river continuum and fish zonation concepts are idealized models of river systems that provide theoretical frameworks for hypothesis generation and comparisons to particular situations. When rivers pass through lakes, for example, water temperatures, the food base, and downstream communities are all modified (Ward & Stanford 1983). Many stream sources lie above the treeline, have reduced organic matter input, and differ from the predictions of the river continuum concept. Anthropogenic influences frequently increase particulate matter loading to streams, increasing filtering collector component of benthic communities.
In low to moderate-gradient streams with loose rocky substrates, cobbles and boulders are mobilized during high-flow events and deposited across the width of river channels forming high-gradient riffles (Figure 4). Riffles are separated by pools, forming riffle-pool sequences recurring about three to five times the width of the river (Hynes 1970; Montgomery and Buffington 1997). During typical base-flow conditions, riffles are erosional habitats with fewer deposited fine particles between substrates. Particulate deposition increases as water velocity slows in pools. Riffle macroinvertebrate communities are typically more diverse than communities in pools. The pattern in fish communities is reversed, with pool fish communities tending to be more diverse than those in riffles (Figure 5; Gelwick 1990, Langeani et al. 2005).
Heavy rainfall and snowmelt can greatly magnify the volume of stream water in a relatively short period of time. Rapidly flowing water can carry large quantities of sand and gravel, effectively sand-blasting surfaces, and removing the periphyton layer. It is not unusual to see macroinvertebrate abundances reduced by half, or more, following such high-water events.
Alluvial: Referring to loose inorganic substrates such as sand, gravel, and boulders eroded, transported, and deposited and often sorted by the action of water.
Anadromous: Fish spending most of their life cycle in salt water and migrating to freshwater to reproduce.
Aquifer: Underground water that exists in the interstitial space between substrate particles or porous rock.
Benthos: The community of organisms inhabiting the solid floor, or benthic zone of any water body.
Biomes: Large biogeographical regions characterized by a particular community type. They are broadly defined by climatic variables including temperature and precipitation. Examples include desert, rain forest, and tundra.
Catchment: The area that drains to a single stream or river. Frequently referred to as a river basin. Synonymous with watershed in North American usage.
Collectors: A macroinvertebrate functional feeding group using small organic particles as a primary food source. Filtering collectors accumulate this material from the water column. Gathering collectors accumulate this material from the benthic zone.
Discharge: The quantity of water passing a certain river or stream location per unit time. Expressed as units of volume per unit time (e.g. cubic meters per second).
Feeding guilds: Organisms categorized by their feeding mode. Examples include nectar feeders, and parasites. See functional feeding groups.
Functional feeding groups: Feeding guilds of aquatic macroinvertebrates. These include grazers (commonly called scrapers), shredders, collectors, and predators.
Grazers: Also called scrapers, a macroinvertebrate functional feeding group that consumes attached periphyton as its primary food source
Hyporheic zone: A zone of saturated substrate beneath and spreading laterally from a river bed. It is the zone of active water and organism exchange between the river water and ground water.
Lentic: Referring to standing-water habitats including lakes, ponds, and swamps (contrast with lotic).
Lotic: Referring to flowing-water habitats including rivers, springs, and streams (contrast with lentic).
Periphyton: The community of primary producers and heterotrophic microorganisms attached to submerged surfaces. In streams this would include algae, cyanobacteria, bacteria, and fungi and their associated extra-cellular secretions. Periphyton serves as the food base utilized by grazers.
Pool: An area of low gradient water in a stream. See also riffle.
Predators: Organisms whose primary food source is other animals.
Riffle: A high-gradient bar of deposited substrate, usually spanning the width of a stream. Typically found as part of a riffle-pool repeating sequence in streams of medium gradient. Not to be confused with ripple.
Ripple: Small-scale undulations on the surface unconsolidated fine substrates such as silt and sand. These features are shaped by the action of flowing water in low-gradient rivers.
Riparian zone: The area of terrestrial habitat adjacent to and most directly influenced by a river or stream.
River Continuum Concept: A model of longitudinal change in physical habitat, and the biological communities in rivers.
Shredders: A benthic macroinvertebrate functional feeding group that utilizes leafy detritus as their primary food source. Although the leaves are consumed, nutritional value is derived from the attached community as well as the leaves themselves.
Species-area relationship: The frequently-confirmed observation that as one increases the area from which a community sample is taken, one typically samples an increasing number of species. e24fc04721
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