"...[O]ur understandings are always situated historically and culturally."
- an excerpt from Module 3's opening statement for this course
The First IT Revolution - Amalia E. Gnanadesikan
"This sentence is a time machine. I wrote it a long time before you opened this book and read it. Yet here are my words after all this time, pristinely preserved, as good as new. The marvelous technology that allows the past to speak directly to the future in this way is by now so pervasive that we take it for granted: it is writing" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"Nearly every step of civilization has been mediated through writing. A world without writing would bear scant resemblance to the one we now live in" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"Writing is a virtual necessity to the societies anthropologists call civilizations. A civilization is distinguished from other societies by the complexity of its social organization, by its construction of cities and large public buildings, and by the economic specialization of its members, many of whom are not directly involved in food procurement or production. A civilization, with its taxation and tribute systems, its trade, and its public works, requires a sophisticated system of record keeping. And so the early civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, Mesoamerica, and (probably) India all developed a system of writing. Only the Peruvian civilization of the Incas and their predecessors did not use writing but instead invented a system of keeping records on knotted color-coded strings known as quipu" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"Literature, which we now tend to consider the essence of written language, was a much later development - and in the case of some writing systems, never developed at all" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"As human societies became more complex, those attempting to control them found that their memories were overtaxed. What they needed was an external storage device. What they came up with is writing" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"A spoken (or mentally composed) message unfolds in time, one word replacing the previous one as it is uttered. Writing arranges the message in space, each word following the previous one in a line. Writing is therefore a process of translating time into space. [...] But writing is not language, nor is it necessary to language" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"Writing is associated with education, and education with wealth and power. The small percentage of languages that have a well-established written tradition include all the languages of national and international influence" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"If we could distill human thoughts into a finite number of concepts that could be written down, could we resist giving them names - words? No. We would “read” the symbols by pronouncing them as words. Written symbols cannot systematically bypass language" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"There are far fewer morphemes in a language than words, and the morphemes can be combined and recombined in so many ways that it is hard to say how many words a language actually has" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"Writing systems that represent individual phonemes are called alphabets" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
"... the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) [...] is designed to represent all the phonemes of human languages. By transcribing an alphabet into the IPA we can tell what phonemes that alphabet encodes: it is a sort of decoder ring for alphabets" (Gnanadesikan, n.d.).
The Orality of Language - Ong
Magic School AI summarizes the artcile with the folllowing:
The article explores the relationship between orality and literacy, highlighting the significant role of oral language in human communication and thought. It discusses the historical neglect of orality in linguistic studies, noting that while writing has been viewed as a primary form of language, it is, in fact, a secondary system that complements the oral tradition.
There are "certain basic differences...between the ways of managing knowledge and verbalization in primary oral cultures (cultures with no knowledge at all of writing) and in cultures deeply affected by the use of writing" (Ong 2002).
"Indeed, language is so overwhelmingly oral that of all the many thousands of languages—possibly tens of thousands—spoken in the course of human history only around 106 have ever been committed to writing to a degree sufficient to have produced literature, and most have never been written at all. Of the some 3000 languages spoken that exist today only some 78 have a literature" (Ong, 2002).
"A grapholect is a transdialectal language formed by deep commitment to writing. Writing gives a grapholect a power far exceeding that of any purely oral dialect. The grapholect known as standard English has accessible for use a recorded vocabulary of at least a million and a half words, of which not only the present meanings but also hundreds of thousands of past meanings are known. A simply oral dialect will commonly have resources of only a few thousand words, and its users will have virtually no knowledge of the real semantic history of any of these words" (Ong, 2002).
"Written texts all have to be related somehow, directly or indirectly, to the world of sound, the natural habitat of language, to yield their meanings. ‘Reading’ a text means converting it to sound, aloud or in the imagination, syllable-by-syllable in slow reading or sketchily in the rapid reading common to high-technology cultures. Writing can never dispense with orality" (Ong, 2002).
"All thought, including that in primary oral cultures, is to some degree analytic: it breaks its materials into various components. But abstractly sequential, classificatory, explanatory examination of phenomena or of stated truths is impossible without writing and reading. Human beings in primary oral cultures, those untouched by writing in any form, learn a great deal and possess and practice great wisdom, but they do not ‘study’" (Ong, 2002).
The following was produced by Magic School AI, when asked what Ong meant by "computer languages"...
In the context of Walter Ong's work, "computer languages" refers to the various programming languages and coding systems used to communicate with computers. Ong often discusses the implications of technology on communication and human consciousness, emphasizing how different forms of language—such as spoken, written, and now digital languages—affect our cognition and social interactions.
Computer languages are designed to instruct computers in specific ways, facilitating the creation of software, applications, and digital systems. These languages have their own syntax and semantics, which differ significantly from natural languages used by humans for everyday communication.
Ong's exploration of computer languages may also reflect on how they transform human thought processes, the nature of literacy, and the ways we understand and interact with the world through technology. If you have a specific passage or idea from Ong's work you'd like to discuss further, feel free to share!
Questions (from the module) with answers (provided by Magic School AI) to consider:
What effects has writing had on human thought processes?
Writing has had profound effects on human thought processes in several ways:
1. Preservation of Knowledge:
Writing allows for the documentation and preservation of information across generations. This capability enables societies to build upon previous knowledge, leading to advancements in various fields.
2. Enhanced Memory:
Written records reduce the burden on human memory. People can refer to texts instead of relying solely on oral tradition, which can lead to more accurate information retention.
3. Abstract Thinking:
Writing encourages abstract thought by allowing individuals to manipulate symbols and ideas that may not be present in their immediate environment. This abstraction fosters higher-level cognitive processes.
4. Analytical Skills:
The act of writing requires organization and clarity of thought. It promotes critical thinking as individuals must analyze and synthesize information to effectively convey their ideas.
5. Individualism:
Writing can support the development of personal identity and individual expression. It allows for personal reflection and articulation of unique viewpoints, contributing to a sense of self.
6. Communication Across Time and Space:
Written language enables communication beyond immediate physical presence, allowing ideas to be shared over distances and time periods, which can influence cultural exchange and development.
7. Social Structure:
Writing has contributed to the establishment of social hierarchies and governance structures. It facilitates the creation of laws, contracts, and other formal agreements that shape society.
8. Cognitive Load:
While writing can alleviate memory loads, it may also introduce complexity in thought processes. The need to structure and format information can lead to increased cognitive demands.
In essence, writing has fundamentally transformed how humans think, communicate, and relate to one another and their environments. It has shaped cultural, social, and intellectual landscapes throughout history.
Does it weaken memory? If so, does this matter?
Yes, writing can weaken memory, but this phenomenon is nuanced and can vary depending on context. Here are some key points to consider:
1. Reliance on External Aids:
When individuals rely heavily on written records (e.g., notes, textbooks, digital sources) to remember information, they may not engage as deeply with the material. This reliance can lead to a reduced capacity to memorize and recall information independently.
2. Cognitive Offloading:
Writing serves as a form of cognitive offloading, where individuals use external tools to manage cognitive tasks. While this can free up mental resources for other activities, it may diminish the effort put into internalizing information.
3. Active Engagement vs. Passive Consumption:
Writing often encourages passive consumption of information, especially if individuals simply read or copy text without actively engaging with the content. In contrast, active learning strategies (e.g., summarizing, teaching others) tend to enhance memory retention.
4. Context Matters:
The impact of writing on memory can depend on factors such as the type of material, the method of writing, and the individual's learning style. For example, writing notes by hand may enhance memory retention compared to typing, as it often involves more cognitive processing.
Does This Matter?
Yes, it does matter for several reasons:
1. Learning Strategies:
Understanding the relationship between writing and memory can help educators develop effective teaching strategies that encourage active engagement and deeper learning.
2. Long-Term Retention:
If writing weakens memory retention, it's essential to implement techniques that promote active recall and spaced repetition to support long-term learning.
3. Balancing Tools and Memory:
While writing aids in organizing and preserving information, it's important to balance the use of external aids with strategies that strengthen memory, such as self-testing and summarization.
4. Implications for Digital Age:
In an era where digital tools are prevalent, awareness of how reliance on written information (like search engines or note-taking apps) affects memory can guide individuals in developing critical thinking and retention skills.
In conclusion, while writing can potentially weaken memory, the implications of this relationship call for a balanced approach to learning that maximizes the benefits of writing while minimizing its drawbacks.
Is rote learning of any use in literate cultures with easy and affordable access to various methods of information storage? Is there any pedagogical merit in requiring students to memorize information such as mathematical formulas or literary texts?
Rote learning, while often criticized in modern educational contexts, still holds value in literate cultures, especially considering the easy and affordable access to various methods of information storage. Here are some considerations regarding its usefulness and pedagogical merit:
1. Foundation for Deeper Understanding:
Memorizing basic facts, formulas, or texts can provide a foundation upon which deeper understanding can be built. For instance, knowing mathematical formulas by heart allows students to focus on problem-solving and application rather than getting bogged down in recalling information.
2. Cognitive Load Reduction:
When students memorize essential information, they reduce cognitive load during complex tasks. This allows them to allocate mental resources to higher-order thinking skills, analysis, and synthesis.
3. Retrieval Practice:
Regularly practicing retrieval of memorized information strengthens neural pathways associated with that knowledge. This can enhance long-term retention and make it easier for students to access information when needed.
4. Cultural and Historical Literacy:
Memorizing literary texts or historical events can foster cultural literacy, enabling students to engage meaningfully with literature, history, and discussions that reference these works or events.
5. Building Confidence:
Mastering certain information through rote learning can build students' confidence in their knowledge base, encouraging them to tackle more advanced concepts and participate actively in discussions.
6. Essential Skills Development:
In subjects like mathematics, memorizing formulas and operations is often necessary for success in more advanced topics. This foundational knowledge is critical for students to progress in their mathematical understanding.
7. Challenges of Over-Reliance:
While rote learning has merits, over-reliance on it can lead to superficial understanding. Therefore, it is crucial to balance rote memorization with active learning strategies that promote critical thinking and application.
Conclusion:
In summary, there is pedagogical merit in requiring students to memorize certain information, such as mathematical formulas or literary texts. However, educators should aim for a balanced approach that combines rote learning with deeper engagement, context, and application of knowledge. This balance can help students retain essential information while also developing critical thinking skills and a deeper understanding of the subject matter.
What form(s) of thinking has writing facilitated? In what ways has this been beneficial or detrimental for humanity?
Writing has facilitated several forms of thinking, each with its own benefits and potential drawbacks for humanity. Here are some key forms of thinking enabled by writing, along with their implications:
1. Abstract Thinking:
Facilitation: Writing allows individuals to express and manipulate abstract concepts, enabling them to think beyond immediate experiences.
Benefits: This ability has fostered advancements in philosophy, science, and mathematics, leading to significant developments in human understanding and innovation.
Detriments: Overemphasis on abstract thinking can sometimes disconnect individuals from practical, real-world experiences and emotions.
2. Critical Thinking:
Facilitation: Writing promotes critical analysis by requiring individuals to organize their thoughts, construct arguments, and evaluate evidence.
Benefits: This has led to informed decision-making, problem-solving, and the development of democratic discourse.
Detriments: If critical thinking is not encouraged, writing can become a tool for manipulation or propaganda, leading to misinterpretation of information.
3. Reflective Thinking:
Facilitation: Writing encourages self-reflection and personal expression, allowing individuals to explore their thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Benefits: This can enhance self-awareness, emotional intelligence, and personal growth.
Detriments: Over-reflection without action can lead to paralysis or excessive rumination, hindering progress or well-being.
4. Systematic Thinking:
Facilitation: Writing enables the organization of information in a coherent manner, promoting systematic approaches to problem-solving.
Benefits: This has contributed to the development of structured methodologies in various fields, such as science, engineering, and education.
Detriments: Rigid adherence to systems can stifle creativity and adaptability, limiting innovative thinking.
5. Collaborative Thinking:
Facilitation: Written communication allows for collaboration across distances and time, enabling groups to share ideas, feedback, and knowledge.
Benefits: This has facilitated collective problem-solving and the sharing of diverse perspectives, enhancing social progress and innovation.
Detriments: Miscommunication or misinterpretation in written exchanges can lead to conflict or misunderstanding among collaborators.
6. Historical Thinking:
Facilitation: Writing preserves historical records, enabling societies to reflect on past events and learn from them.
Benefits: This fosters a sense of identity, continuity, and informed decision-making based on historical context.
Detriments: However, selective documentation can lead to biased historical narratives, potentially perpetuating misinformation or cultural erasure.
Conclusion:
In summary, writing has facilitated various forms of thinking that have significantly shaped human cognition and society. While these developments have brought numerous benefits, there are also potential detriments that arise from over-reliance on certain modes of thinking or misapplication of written communication. Balancing these forms of thinking with awareness and critical engagement can help harness the positive aspects of writing while mitigating its drawbacks.
How has the technology of writing changed the act of teaching?
The technology of writing has significantly transformed the act of teaching in various ways. Here are some key changes and their implications:
1. Access to Information:
Change: With the advent of writing technologies (e.g., books, digital media), teachers and students can access a vast array of information and resources.
Implication: This democratization of knowledge has expanded the curriculum, allowing educators to incorporate diverse perspectives and materials into their teaching.
2. Enhanced Communication:
Change: Writing technology has improved communication between teachers and students, as well as among educators.
Implication: Clearer communication through written assignments, feedback, and digital platforms fosters better engagement and collaboration in the learning process.
3. Shift from Oral to Written Culture:
Change: The emphasis on written materials has shifted the focus from oral traditions to written texts in education.
Implication: This shift can enhance students' literacy skills but may also diminish the value of oral storytelling and verbal communication skills.
4. Development of Teaching Materials:
Change: Writing technology has enabled the creation of diverse teaching materials, such as textbooks, workbooks, and online resources.
Implication: This variety allows educators to tailor their instructional approaches to meet the needs of different learners and adapt to various learning styles.
5. Assessment and Evaluation:
Change: Writing technology allows for more structured assessment methods, including written tests, essays, and digital portfolios.
Implication: This enables educators to evaluate student understanding more comprehensively and provides opportunities for formative assessment and feedback.
6. Facilitated Collaboration:
Change: The rise of collaborative writing tools (e.g., Google Docs, online forums) has transformed how students work together on projects.
Implication: This fosters teamwork and communication skills, preparing students for collaborative work in professional environments.
7. Increased Focus on Written Expression:
Change: Writing has become a central focus of education, with significant emphasis on developing students' writing skills.
Implication: While this enhances communication skills, it may also lead to an overemphasis on writing at the expense of other forms of expression, such as creativity and critical thinking.
8. Integration of Technology in Teaching:
Change: The integration of digital writing tools (e.g., blogs, wikis, social media) has altered how teachers deliver instruction and engage students.
Implication: This promotes digital literacy and prepares students for a technology-driven world, but it also poses challenges, such as the need to navigate information overload and ensure responsible online behavior.
Conclusion:
In summary, the technology of writing has profoundly changed the act of teaching by expanding access to information, enhancing communication, and influencing pedagogical practices. While these changes have brought numerous benefits, they also require educators to adapt their approaches to ensure that all forms of communication and learning are valued and effectively integrated into the educational experience.
Page References
Gnanadesikan, A.E. (2008). The First IT Revolution. In The Writing Revolution (eds D. Crystal and A.E. Gnanadesikan). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444304671.ch1
MagicSchool AI. (n.d.). MagicSchool AI. Retrieved February 1, 2025, from https://app.magicschool.ai/raina?thread=64398658
Ong, W. J. (2002). The orality of language. In Orality and Literacy (2nd ed.). Routledge.