As human society abandoned the oral tradition for the written text, the written culture is giving way to an audio-visual one. This is a radical change, to say the least: and none of us knows quite how to respond. Obviously the change cannot be all bad. On the other hand, what is to become of that written language which was for two millennia wisdom's only mold? What is to become of the priests of literature, as their temples are abandoned? (Vidal, 1984, p. 20)
"Consider how word processors may be changing literacy. For example, William Caxton was the first English printer, who, to a large degree, set spelling conventions for the English language. It is recognized that some of Caxton's practices may have been arbitrary: he added, for instance, the "h" to "ghost" (in Old English, gast, and in Old Saxon, gest), but it is not entirely clear as to why he did so. Some suggest it was because he had too few of the single letter "g" and in consequence began substituting the type block "gh"—a substitution made for convenience's sake that permanently changed the language" ([5.2] The Calculator of the Humanist: Word Processing and the Reinvention of Writing: ETEC_V 540 65A 2024W2 Text Technologies: The Changing Spaces of Reading and Writing, n.d.)
"Some feel word processors and digital writing spaces augment human thought processes by easing manipulation of language; others conjecture that it represents a threat to literacy and to the mastery of the "predigital word." In this last regard, asks Heim, might the advent of digital writing erode literature and "the culture based on respectful care for the word" (p. 3)?" ([5.2] The Calculator of the Humanist: Word Processing and the Reinvention of Writing: ETEC_V 540 65A 2024W2 Text Technologies: The Changing Spaces of Reading and Writing, n.d.)
Quotes from Bolter...
Unlike foot or endnotes, information on a website can be "linked electronically to many others [and can] contain linked phrases that in turn lead the reader to other pages. The process can continue indefinitely as the reader moves through a textual space that, in the case of the World Wide Web, can extend throughout the Internet. Although in a printed book it would be intolerably pedantic to write footnotes to footnotes, in the computer we have already come to regard this layered writing and reading as natural. Furthermore, the second page is not necessarily subordinate to the first. One linked phrase may lead the reader to a longer, more elaborate page. All the individual pages may be of equal importance in the whole text, which becomes a network of interconnected writings" (Bolter, 2000).
"Web pages function as ordinary text, but they also function as places along a path" (Bolter, 2000).
"Links can make the structure of the site transparent—with, for example, a list of links on the home page that functions as a menu to articulate for the reader the various areas of the Web site. Links can also function like printed footnotes to provide additional information or to document what is on the page. Such links may be circular, so that the reader returns to the original page after examining the note. Associative links can take the reader to other Web sites to explore related topics. The principal task of authors of hypertextual fiction on the Web or in stand-alone form is to use links to define relationships among textual elements, and these links constitute the rhetoric of the hypertext" (Bolter, 2000).
"We tend to conceive of hypertext spatially: the links constitute a path through a virtual space and the reader becomes a visitor or traveler in that space. We say that the reader or user “visits” Web pages in California, Germany, or Japan, when in fact we could just as easily say that the pages come to her" (Bolter, 2000).
"With a word processor, writers can delete or replace an entire word; they can highlight phrases, sentences, or paragraphs. They can erase a sentence with a single keystroke; they can select a paragraph, cut it from its current location, and insert it elsewhere, even into another document. In using these facilities, the writer is thinking and writing in terms of verbal units or topics, whose meaning transcends their constituent words. The Greek word topos meant literally a place, and ancient rhetoric used the word to refer to commonplaces, conventional units or methods of thought. In the Renaissance, topics became headings that could be used to organize any field of knowledge, and these headings were sometimes set out in elaborate diagrams. Our English word “topic” is still appropriate for the computer because its etymology suggests the spatial character of electronic writing. Topics exist in a writing space that is not only a visual surface but also a data structure in the computer. The programmers who designed word processors recognized the importance of topical writing, when they gave us operations for adding or deleting sentences and paragraphs as units. They did not, however, take the further step of allowing a writer to associate a name or a visual symbol with each topical unit, which would give the unit a conceptual identity" (Bolter, 2000).
"Layers of software in turn transform the machine’s physical space of electronic circuits into a space of symbolic information" (Bolter, 2000).
The article "Hypertext and the Remediation of Print" by Jay David Bolter explores the evolution and implications of hypertext as a writing medium, particularly in relation to traditional print. Here’s a summary of the main points:
Hypertext Defined: Hypertext has transitioned from an esoteric concept to a common cultural phenomenon with the rise of the World Wide Web. Unlike traditional printed pages, hypertext allows for interactive links that connect various pages, enabling a nonlinear reading experience.
Structure and Navigation: Hypertext consists of discrete units of content (text, graphics) connected through links, allowing readers to navigate a network of information. This structure is likened to a spatial experience where readers "visit" pages, contrasting with the linear navigation of printed texts.
Word Processing and Topical Writing: The article discusses how word processing technology has changed writing practices, allowing for easier revision and organization of topics. It emphasizes the importance of understanding writing as both a verbal and spatial activity, where topics can be structured hierarchically or associatively.
The Nature of Hypertext: Hypertext supports a combination of hierarchical and associative thinking, allowing for multiple interpretations and reading paths. This multiplicity contrasts with the fixed order of printed texts, which traditionally impose a singular narrative structure.
Cultural Implications: Bolter highlights that hypertext is not merely a new medium but a remediation of print, reflecting and reshaping our understanding of writing and reading. Hypertext offers new rhetorical possibilities and encourages a conscious engagement with the medium itself.
Global Hypertext Systems: The development of hypertext systems, such as the World Wide Web, has created a vast, interconnected space of information. This contrasts with earlier stand-alone hypertext systems and illustrates the global nature of hypertext as it continues to evolve.
Visual Culture: The article notes that we live in a predominantly visual culture, where hypermedia integrates images and sounds with text. This shift challenges traditional print's dominance and prompts print media to adapt by incorporating visual elements to maintain relevance.
Debate Between Print and Hypertext: The article concludes with a discussion of the ongoing debate about the merits of print versus hypertext. While hypertext offers interactivity and flexibility, print maintains a sense of tradition and simplicity. The two mediums are seen as interdependent, with hypertext both acknowledging and surpassing the conventions of print.
Overall, Bolter's work emphasizes the transformative impact of hypertext on writing practices and cultural discourse, illustrating how digital technologies are reshaping our understanding of textuality and authorship in the modern age.
Douglas C. Engelbart outlines a framework for enhancing human intellectual capabilities through the use of technology. Here are the key points summarized:
Conceptual Framework: Engelbart emphasizes the need to understand how individuals process information and solve complex problems. He proposes that human effectiveness is limited by sensory and motor capabilities, and that technology can help extend these capabilities.
Augmentation Means: Engelbart defines four primary means of augmentation:
Artifacts: Physical tools that assist in manipulation and comfort.
Language: The symbols and concepts used for thinking and communication.
Methodology: The strategies and procedures employed in problem-solving.
Training: The conditioning necessary for effective use of the above means.
Process Hierarchies: Engelbart discusses how complex tasks can be broken down into smaller, manageable sub-processes organized hierarchically. This structure allows individuals to tackle complex problems step by step.
Repertoire of Capabilities: The framework includes a repertoire hierarchy, where individuals draw from a finite set of basic capabilities to adapt processes for various tasks. This repertoire can include explicit-human, explicit-artifact, and composite capabilities that combine both.
Intelligence Amplification: Engelbart introduces the concept of "intelligence amplification," which refers to enhancing human intellect through improved organization and integration of cognitive capabilities with technology.
Synergism: The article highlights the importance of synergistic structuring, where the organization of components produces effects greater than the sum of individual parts. This principle is crucial for understanding how various components of the H-LAM/T system (Human using Language, Artifacts, Methodology, in which he is Trained) work together.
Two-Domain System: Engelbart describes the interaction between two domains within the H-LAM/T system: the human domain and the artifact domain. Each domain has explicit processes that work together to enhance intellectual capabilities.
Evolution of Symbol Manipulation: Engelbart explores how the development of external symbol manipulation tools, such as computers, can significantly impact human thinking and problem-solving capabilities. He posits that advancements in technology can lead to new ways of structuring and manipulating symbols, further enhancing cognitive processes.
Future Implications: The article suggests that by understanding and improving the processes involved in human intellect, we can develop more effective tools and methodologies for problem-solving. Engelbart advocates for a system-engineering approach to redesign the H-LAM/T system for better integration of technology in enhancing human intellect.
Overall, Engelbart's work lays the groundwork for future exploration into how technology can augment human cognitive abilities, emphasizing a systems approach to understanding and improving intellectual effectiveness.
Page References
[5.2] The Calculator of the Humanist: Word Processing and the Reinvention of Writing: ETEC_V 540 65A 2024W2 Text Technologies: The Changing Spaces of Reading and Writing. (n.d.). Retrieved February 18, 2025, from https://canvas.ubc.ca/courses/151736/pages/5-dot-2-the-calculator-of-the-humanist-word-processing-and-the-reinvention-of-writing?module_item_id=7553219
Bolter, J. D. (2000). Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print: EBSCOhost. https://web.p.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=a5bc0c49-9cce-4612-b64c-2949fef5f096%40redis&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPXNoaWImc2l0ZT1laG9zdC1saXZlJnNjb3BlPXNpdGU%3d#AN=56673&db=nlebk
Carl Lewis (Director). (2011, September 24). Secret Life Of Machines—The Word Processor (Full Length) [Video recording]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nN9wNvEnn-Q
Engelbert, D. C. (1962, October). Engelbart: Augmenting Human Intellect (1962). Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. https://web.archive.org/web/20080331181752/http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/2framework.html
MagicSchool AI. (n.d.). MagicSchool AI. Retrieved February 18, 2025, from https://app.magicschool.ai/raina?thread=68892495
Vidal, G. (1984). In love with the adverb. The New York Review of Books, 31(5)
Zaltzman, H. (Host). (2019, July 13). New rules (No. 102) [Audio podcast episode]. In The allusionist.