In computer science, a dynamic programming language is a class of high-level programming languages, which at runtime execute many common programming behaviours that static programming languages perform during compilation. These behaviors could include an extension of the program, by adding new code, by extending objects and definitions, or by modifying the type system. Although similar behaviors can be emulated in nearly any language, with varying degrees of difficulty, complexity and performance costs, dynamic languages provide direct tools to make use of them. Many of these features were first implemented as native features in the Lisp programming language.
Most dynamic languages are also dynamically typed, but not all are. Dynamic languages are frequently (but not always) referred to as scripting languages, although that term in its narrowest sense refers to languages specific to a given run-time environment.
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Some dynamic languages offer an eval function. This function takes a string or abstract syntax tree containing code in the language and executes it. If this code stands for an expression, the resulting value is returned. Erik Meijer and Peter Drayton distinguish the runtime code generation offered by eval from the dynamic loading offered by shared libraries, and warn that in many cases eval is used merely to implement higher-order functions (by passing functions as strings) or deserialization.[1]
A type or object system can typically be modified during runtime in a dynamic language. This can mean generating new objects from a runtime definition or based on mixins of existing types or objects. This can also refer to changing the inheritance or type tree, and thus altering the way that existing types behave (especially with respect to the invocation of methods).
As a lot of dynamic languages come with a dynamic type system, runtime inference of types based on values for internal interpretation marks a common task. As value types may change throughout interpretation, it is regularly used upon performing atomic operations.
Static programming languages (possibly indirectly) require developers to define the size of utilized memory before compilation (unless working around with pointer logic). Consistent with object runtime alteration, dynamic languages implicitly need to (re-)allocate memory based on program individual operations.
Reflection is common in many dynamic languages, and typically involves analysis of the types and metadata of generic or polymorphic data. It can, however, also include full evaluation and modification of a program's code as data, such as the features that Lisp provides in analyzing S-expressions.
A limited number of dynamic programming languages provide features which combine code introspection (the ability to examine classes, functions, and keywords to know what they are, what they do and what they know) and eval in a feature called macros. Most programmers today who are aware of the term macro have encountered them in C or C++, where they are a static feature which is built in a small subset of the language, and are capable only of string substitutions on the text of the program. In dynamic languages, however, they provide access to the inner workings of the compiler, and full access to the interpreter, virtual machine, or runtime, allowing the definition of language-like constructs which can optimize code or modify the syntax or grammar of the language.
This collection of conceptual papers and data-based research studies investigate the dynamics of language learning motivation from a complex dynamic systems perspective. The chapters seek to answer the question of how we can understand motivation if we perceive it as a continuously changing and evolving entity rather than a fixed learner trait.
Drnyei Zoltn :
Zoltn Drnyei is Professor of Psycholinguistics at the School of English, University of Nottingham. He has published widely on various aspects of second language acquisition and language learning motivation including Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (2009, edited with Ema Ushioda).MacIntyre Peter D. :
Peter D. MacIntyre is Professor of Psychology at Cape Breton University, Canada. He has published widely on the themes of emotion, motivation and cognition and is the co-editor (with Zoltn Drnyei and Alastair Henry) of Motivational Dynamics in Language Learning (2014).
Alastair Henry teaches at University West, Sweden and has a PhD in Language Education from the University of Gothenburg. His research focuses on motivation in third language learning and gender differences in L2 motivation.Zoltn Drnyei is Professor of Psycholinguistics at the School of English, University of Nottingham. He has published widely on various aspects of second language acquisition and language learning motivation including Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (2009, edited with Ema Ushioda).Peter D. MacIntyre is Professor of Psychology at Cape Breton University, Canada. He has published widely in the areas of the psychology of communication, motivation, emotion, willingness to communicate, language acquisition and dynamic systems.Alastair Henry teaches at University West, Sweden and has a PhD in Language Education from the University of Gothenburg. His research focuses on motivation in third language learning and gender differences in L2 motivation.
This pioneering volume brings together an impressive collection of studies on the applications of dynamic systems theory to the research of language learning motivation. Its strengths lie in offering new theoretical perspectives and groundbreaking methodological tools in researching motivation in various contexts. This book will prove to be a valuable and stimulating resource for anyone interested in the complex interplay of context, individual learner characteristics and processes of second language acquisition.
Mirosaw Pawlak, Adam Mickiewicz University, Kalisz, Poland:
The edited volume is bound to become a recognized source of reference, inspiration, insight, reflection and self-education for all those who set their sights on uncovering the intricate nature of motivation to learn additional languages, whether with respect to its causes, intensity or the factors responsible for shaping it. Its merits will undoubtedly be appreciated by undergraduate, graduate and doctoral students, experienced scholars who feel the need to apply a wider lens to their research, one that is more focused on the individual, context or interactions between the two, as well as teachers who are determined to gain a greater understanding of the factors impinging upon motivation in the hope of devising efficacious motivational strategies.
Aaron Doyle, The University of Hong Kong:
This anthology provides a much-needed bridge between conventional and dynamic approaches to L2 motivation research, and it is an important step toward a more complete understanding of the motivational ebbs and flows of language learning.
This landmark volume offers a collection of conceptual papers and empirical research studies that investigate the dynamics of language learning motivation from a complex dynamic systems perspective. The contributors include some of the most well-established scholars from three continents, all addressing the question of how we can understand motivation if we perceive it as continuously changing and evolving rather than as a fixed learner trait. The data-based studies also provide useful research models and templates for graduate students and scholars in the fields of applied linguistics and SLA who are interested in engaging with the intriguing area of examining language learning in a dynamic vein.
This anthology provides a much-needed bridge between conventional and dynamic approaches to L2 motivation research, and it is an important step toward a more complete understanding of the motivational ebbs and flows of language learning.
The edited volume is bound to become a recognized source of reference, inspiration, insight, reflection and self-education for all those who set their sights on uncovering the intricate nature of motivation to learn additional languages, whether with respect to its causes, intensity or the factors responsible for shaping it. Its merits will undoubtedly be appreciated by undergraduate, graduate and doctoral students, experienced scholars who feel the need to apply a wider lens to their research, one that is more focused on the individual, context or interactions between the two, as well as teachers who are determined to gain a greater understanding of the factors impinging upon motivation in the hope of devising efficacious motivational strategies.
Zoltn Drnyei is Professor of Psycholinguistics at the School of English, University of Nottingham. He has published widely on various aspects of second language acquisition and language learning motivation including Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (2009, edited with Ema Ushioda).Peter D. MacIntyre is Professor of Psychology at Cape Breton University, Canada. He has published widely in the areas of the psychology of communication, motivation, emotion, willingness to communicate, language acquisition and dynamic systems.Alastair Henry teaches at University West, Sweden and has a PhD in Language Education from the University of Gothenburg. His research focuses on motivation in third language learning and gender differences in L2 motivation. 2351a5e196
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