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SOURCE: Technical Appendix to this policy brief and PPIC Delta Water Accounting spreadsheets.

NOTES: Maf is millions of acre-feet. The figures show Delta watershed flows in water years (October 1 through September 30). Map arrows show runoff from the Sacramento and San Joaquin River basins and outflow from the Delta, and are approximately to scale. Bars show the composition of sources, uses, and outflow. Net runoff is total runoff plus Delta precipitation minus net increases in surface storage (in 2017, 3.7 maf). Values for 2017 and 2021 (all in maf) are as follows: net runoff (66.6, 9.1); storage release (0, 5.6); upstream use (9.9, 7.3); in-Delta use (1.8, 1.8); exports (6.3, 1.5); system outflow (4.8, 3.2); ecosystem outflow (6.4, 0.8); uncaptured outflow (37.4, 0.1). Imports from the Trinity River (0.6 maf in both years) contributed to net changes in storage. See text and notes in the first figure for definitions of uses and outflow categories.

With the era of dam building coming to an end in much of the developed world, places such as California and Australia are turning to local and less expensive methods to deal with water scarcity, including recycling wastewater, capturing stormwater, and recharging aquifers.

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The latest methods are considered more reliable than reservoirs, whose water supply varies with precipitation levels and season. In the era of climate change, dams are increasingly vulnerable to drought and evaporation, while the supply of, say, urban wastewater stays roughly constant. Because most of the storage techniques mimic or reinforce natural processes instead of opposing them, as dams do, at worst they cause minimal environmental disruption and at best they generate substantial benefit.

A Bluefield study last year found that in a ranking of the current cost of water delivered from six technologies, dams and reservoirs were the second-costliest. From cheapest to most expensive, the progression goes: smart-meter leak detection, desalination of brackish water (usually in aquifers), wastewater recycling, stormwater capture, reservoirs, ocean desalination. Even ocean desalination is likely to get cheaper as filtration technologies improve, while new dam water gets more expensive.

Reversing its traditional approach to stormwater, the city of Los Angeles is now pioneering stormwater capture. Through most of the twentieth century, Southern California cities tried to prevent flooding by turning rivers into concrete watercourses that hastened flow into the Pacific Ocean. Meanwhile, they spent lavish sums to import drinking water from elsewhere in California. Marking the definitive end of that approach, Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti issued a directive in 2014 to cut purchases of imported water in half within a decade.

Now the city is redesigning roads, parks, and other surfaces to absorb as much water as possible so that it seeps downward into aquifers, thereby reducing flooding, cleansing itself, and becoming available for reuse. A joint 2014 study by the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Pacific Institute found that stormwater capture in the San Francisco Bay Area and urban portions of Southern California possesses the potential to increase water supplies by as much water as is used by the entire city of Los Angeles in a year.

"Water, Water, Everywhere..." You've heard the phrase, and for water, it really is true. Earth's water is (almost) everywhere: above the Earth in the air and clouds and on the surface of the Earth in rivers, oceans, ice, plants, and in living organisms. But did you know that water is also inside the Earth? Read on to learn more.

"Water, Water, Everywhere...."

You've heard the phrase, and for water, it really is true. Earth's water is (almost) everywhere: above the Earth in the air and clouds, on the surface of the Earth in rivers, oceans, ice, plants, in living organisms, and inside the Earth in the top few miles of the ground.

For an estimated explanation of where Earth's water exists, look at this bar chart. You may know that the water cycle describes the movement of Earth's water, so realize that the chart and table below represent the presence of Earth's water at a single point in time. If you check back in a million years, no doubt these numbers will be different!

Here is a bar chart showing where all water on, in, and above the Earth exists. The left-side bar chart shows how almost all of Earth's water is saline and is found in the oceans. Of the small amount that is actually freshwater, only a relatively small portion is available to sustain human, plant, and animal life.

The water cycle describes where water is on Earth and how it moves. Human water use, land use, and climate change all impact the water cycle. By understanding these impacts, we can work toward using water sustainably.

The water cycle describes where water is on Earth and how it moves. Water is stored in the atmosphere, on the land surface, and below the ground. It can be a liquid, a solid, or a gas. Liquid water can be fresh or saline (salty). Water moves between the places it is stored. Water moves at large scales, through watersheds, the atmosphere, and below the Earth's surface. Water moves at very small scales too. It is in us, plants, and other organisms. Human activities impact the water cycle, affecting where water is stored, how it moves, and how clean it is.

As it moves, water can change form between liquid, solid, and gas. Circulation mixes water in the oceans and transports water vapor in the atmosphere. Water moves between the atmosphere and the surface through evaporation, evapotranspiration, and precipitation. Water moves across the surface through snowmelt, runoff, and streamflow. Water moves into the ground through infiltration and groundwater recharge. Underground, groundwater flows within aquifers. Groundwater can return to the surface through natural discharge into rivers, the ocean, and from springs.

In addition to natural processes, human water use affects where water is stored and how water moves. We redirect rivers. We build dams to store water. We drain water from wetlands for development. We use water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater aquifers. We use that water to supply our homes and communities. We use it for agricultural irrigation and grazing livestock. We use it in industrial activities like thermoelectric power generation, mining, and aquaculture.

Climate change is actively affecting the water cycle. It is impacting water quantity and timing. Precipitation patterns are changing. The frequency, intensity, and length of extreme weather events, like floods or droughts, are also changing. Ocean sea levels are rising, leading to coastal flooding. Climate change is also impacting water quality. It is causing ocean acidification which damages the shells and skeletons of many marine organisms. Climate change increases the likelihood and intensity of wildfires, which introduces unwanted pollutants from soot and ash into nearby lakes and streams.

Atmosphere Condensation Evaporation Evapotranspiration Freshwater lakes and rivers Groundwater flow Groundwater storage Ice and snow Infiltration Oceans Precipitation Snowmelt Springs Streamflow Sublimation Surface runoff ff782bc1db