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The office of head war-chief was an instance of primitive royalty in avery interesting stage of development. The title of this officer wastlacatecuhtli,The "chief-of men."or "chief-of-men."[118] He was primarily head war-chiefof the Aztec tribe, but about 1430 became supreme military commander ofthe three confederate tribes, so that his office was one of peculiardignity and importance. When the Spaniards arrived upon the sceneMontezuma was tlacatecuhtli, and they naturally called him "king." Tounderstand precisely how far such an epithet could correctly be appliedto him, and how far it was misleading, we must recall the manner inwhich early kingship arose in Europe. The Roman rex was an officerelected for life; the typical Greek basileus was a somewhat more fullydeveloped king, inasmuch as his office was becoming practicallyhereditary; Evolution of kingship in Greece and Rome.otherwise rex was about equivalent to basileus. Alike inRome and in Greece the king had at least three great functions, andpossibly four.[119] He was, primarily, chief (p. 112) commander,secondly, chief priest, thirdly, chief judge; whether he had reached thefourth stage and added the functions of chief civil executive, is matterof dispute. Kingship in Rome and in most Greek cities was overthrown atso early a date that some questions of this sort are difficult tosettle. But in all probability the office grew up through the successiveacquisition of ritual, judicial, and civil functions by the militarycommander. The paramount necessity of consulting the tutelar deitiesbefore fighting resulted in making the general a priest competent toperform sacrifices and interpret omens;[120] he thus naturally becamethe most important among priests; an increased sanctity invested hisperson and office; and by and by he acquired control over thedispensation of justice, and finally over the whole civiladministration. One step more was needed to develop the basileus intoa despot, like the king of Persia, and that was to let him get into hishands the law-making power, involving complete control over taxation.When the Greeks and Romans became dissatisfied with the increasingpowers of their kings, they destroyed the office. The (p. 113) Romansdid not materially diminish its functions, but put them into commission,by entrusting them to two consuls of equal authority elected annually.The Greeks, on the other hand, divided the royal functions amongdifferent officers, as e. g. at Athens among the nine archons.[121]

Now the Mexican tlacatecuhtli, or "chief-of-men," was much more likeAgamemnon in point of kingship than like Edward III. He was not supremelandlord, for landlordship did not exist in Mexico. He was not chiefjudge or civil magistrate; (p. 114) those functions belonged to the"snake-woman." Mr. Bandelier regards the "chief-of-men" as simply amilitary commander; Montezuma was a "priest-commander."but for reasons which I shall state hereafter,[123]it seems quite clear that he exercised certain very important priestlyfunctions, although beside him there was a kind of high-priest ormedicine-chief. If I am right in holding that Montezuma was a"priest-commander," then incipient royalty in Mexico had advanced atleast one stage beyond the head war-chief of the Iroquois, and remainedone stage behind the basileus of the Homeric Greeks.

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Secondly, the relative proximity of Greenland to the mother country,Iceland, made it much easier to sustain a colony there than in the moredistant Vinland. In colonizing, as in campaigning, distance from one'sbase is sometimes the supreme circumstance. This is illustrated by thefact that (p. 225) the very existence of the Greenland colony itselfdepended upon perpetual and untrammelled exchange of commodities withIceland; and when once the source of supply was cut off, the colony soonlanguished. In 1380 and 1387 the crowns of Norway and Denmark descendedupon Queen Margaret, and soon she made her precious contribution to theinnumerable swarm of instances that show with how little wisdom theworld is ruled. She made the trade to Queen Margaret's monopoly, and its baneful effects.Greenland, Iceland, and the Froeisles "a royal monopoly which could only be carried on in shipsbelonging to, or licensed by, the sovereign.... Under the monopoly oftrade the Icelanders could have no vessels, and no object for sailing toGreenland; and the vessels fitted out by government, or its lessees,would only be ready to leave Denmark or Bergen for Iceland at the seasonthey ought to have been ready to leave Iceland to go to Greenland. Thecolony gradually fell into oblivion."[274] When this prohibitorymanagement was abandoned after 1534 by Christian III., it was altogethertoo late. Starved by the miserable policy of governmental interferencewith freedom of trade, the little Greenland colony soon became too weakto sustain itself against the natives whose hostility had, for half acentury, been growing more and more dangerous. Precisely when or how(p. 226) it perished we do not know. The latest notice we have of thecolony is of a marriage ceremony performed (probably in the Kakortokchurch), in 1409, by Endrede Andreasson, the last bishop.[275] When,after three centuries, the great missionary, Hans Egede, visitedGreenland, in 1721, he found the ruins of farmsteads and villages, thepopulation of which had vanished.

Prince Henry did not live to see Africa circumnavigated. At the time ofhis death, in 1468, his ships had not gone farther than the spot whereHanno found his gorillas two thousand years before. But the work of thisexcellent prince did not end with his death. His adventurous spiritlived on in the school of accomplished navigators he had trained. Manyvoyages were made after 1462, of which we need mention only those thatmarked new stages of discovery. In 1471 two knights of the royalhousehold, Joo de Santarem and Pedro de Escobar, sailed down the GoldCoast and crossed the equator; Advance to the Hottentot coast.three years later the line was againcrossed by Fernando Po, discoverer of the island that bears his name. In1484 Diego Cam went on as far as the mouth of the Congo, and enteredinto (p. 327) very friendly relations with the negroes there. In asecond voyage in 1485 this enterprising captain pushed on a thousandmiles farther, and set up a cross in 22 south latitude on the coast ofthe Hottentot country. Brisk trading went on along the Gold Coast, andmissionaries were sent to the Congo.[389]

"From[439]the city of Lisbon due west there are 26 spaces marked on themap, Conclusion of Toscanelli's first letter to Columbus.each of which contains 250 miles, as far as the very great andsplendid city of Quinsay.[440] For it is a hundred miles incircumference and has ten bridges, and its name means City of Heaven,and many wonderful things are told about it and about the multitude ofits arts and revenues. This space is almost a third part of the wholesphere. That city is in the province of Mangi, or near the province ofCathay in which land is the royal residence. But from the island ofAntilia, which you know, to the very splendid island of (p. 361)Cipango[441] there are ten spaces. For that island abounds in gold,pearls, and precious stones, and they cover the temples and palaces withsolid gold. So through the unknown parts of the route the stretches ofsea to be traversed are not great. Many things might perhaps have beenstated more clearly, but one who duly considers what I have said will beable to work out the rest for himself. Farewell, most esteemed one."

At once upon the arrival of Columbus in the camp before Granada, hiscase was argued then (p. 413) and there before an assembly of learnedmen and was received more hospitably than formerly, at Salamanca.The junto before Granada, Dec, 1491.Several eminent prelates had come to think favourably of his project orto deem it at least worth a trial. Among these were the royalconfessors, Deza and Talavera, the latter having changed his mind, andespecially Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo, who now threw his vastinfluence decisively in favour of Columbus.[504] The treasurers of thetwo kingdoms, moreover, Quintanilla for Castile and Luis de Santangelfor Aragon, were among his most enthusiastic supporters; and the resultof the conference was the queen's promise to take up the matter inearnest as soon as the Moor should have surrendered Granada.

When he reached Palos in May, with royal orders for ships and men, therehad like to have been a riot. Dismay at Palos.Terrible dismay was felt at the prospectof launching out for such a voyage (p. 420) upon the Sea of Darkness.Groans and curses greeted the announcement of the forced contribution.But Martin Pinzon and his brothers were active in supporting the crownofficials, and the work went on. To induce men to enlist, debts wereforgiven and civil actions suspended. Criminals were released from jailon condition of serving. Three caravels were impressed into the serviceof the crown for a time unlimited; and The three famous caravels; the Santa Maria.the rent and maintenance of twoof these vessels for two months was to be paid by the town. The largestcaravel, called the Santa Maria or Capitana, belonged to Juan de LaCosa, a Biscayan mariner whose name was soon to become famous.[511] Henow commanded her, with another consummate sailor, Sancho Ruiz, for hispilot. This single-decked craft, about ninety feet in length by twentyfeet breadth of beam, was the Admiral's flag-ship. The second caravel,called the The Pinta.Pinta, a much swifter vessel, was commanded by Martin Pinzon.She belonged to two citizens of Palos, Gomez Rascon and CristobalQuintero, who were now in her crew, sulky and ready for mischief. Thethird and smallest caravel, the The Nia.Nia ("Baby"), had for her commanderVicente Yaez Pinzon, the youngest of the brothers, now about thirtyyears of age. Neither the Pinta nor the Nia were decked amidships. Onboard the three caravels were just ninety persons.[512] And so they(p. 421) set sail from Palos on Friday, August 3, 1492, half an hourbefore sunrise, and by sunset had run due south five and fortygeographical miles, when they shifted their course a couple of points tostarboard and stood for the Canaries. e24fc04721