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A metronome is a device that produces a steady pulse to help musicians play in time. The pulse is measured in BPM (beats-per-minute). A tempo marking of 60 BPM equals one beat per second, while 120 BPM equals two beats per second.

A metronome is commonly used as a practice tool to help maintain a steady tempo while learning difficult passages. It is also used in live performances and recording studios to ensure an accurate tempo throughout the performance or session.

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A metronome (from Ancient Greek (mtron) 'measure', and (noms) 'custom, melody')[1][2][3] is a device that produces an audible click or other sound at a regular interval that can be set by the user, typically in beats per minute (BPM). Metronomes may include synchronized visual motion. Musicians use the device to practise playing to a regular pulse.

When interpreting emotion and other qualities in music, performers seldom play exactly on every beat; expressive, flexible rubato may be used at times. Typically, every beat of a musically expressive performance does not align exactly with each click of a metronome.[5][6][7] This has led some musicians to criticize use of a metronome, because metronome time is different from musical time.[8]

The more familiar mechanical musical chronometer was invented by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel in Amsterdam in 1814. Through questionable practice,[14] Johann Maelzel, incorporating Winkel's ideas, added a scale, called it a metronome and started manufacturing the metronome under his own name in 1816: "Maelzel's Metronome." The original text of Maelzel's patent in England (1815) can be downloaded.[4]

Ludwig van Beethoven was perhaps the first notable composer to indicate specific metronome markings in his music. This was done in 1815, with the corrected copy of the score of the Cantata op. 112 containing Beethoven's first metronome mark.[15]

Musicians practise playing to metronomes to develop and maintain a sense of timing and tempo. Metronomes are also used as a training tool to increase performance speed. Tempo is almost always measured in beats per minute (BPM). Even pieces that do not require a strictly constant tempo (such as with rubato) sometimes provide a BPM marking to indicate the general tempo.

A hardware (non-software/non-app based) metronome's tempo typically is adjustable from 40 to 208 BPM. The most common arrangement of tempos on a Maelzel metronome begins with at 40 beats per minuteand increases by 2bps: 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60,then by 3bps: 63 66 69 72,then by 4bps: 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120,then by 6bps: 126 132 138 144,then by 8bps: 152 160 168 176 184 192 200 208.[17][18]Some digital metronomes allow adjustment to more precise tempos (e.g. increasing 120 to 121), but such a difference is hardly perceptible.[18]

A mechanical metronome uses an adjustable weight on the end of an inverted pendulum rod to control tempo. The weight slides up the pendulum rod to decrease tempo, or down to increase tempo.[20] (This mechanism is also called a double-weighted pendulum, because there is a second, fixed weight on the other side of the pendulum pivot, inside the metronome case.) The pendulum swings back and forth in tempo, while a mechanism inside the metronome produces a clicking sound with each oscillation. Mechanical metronomes do not need a battery, but run from a spring-wound clockwork escapement.

Electromechanical metronomes were invented by Franz Frederick.[21] Instead of using a clockwork or a quartz crystal, an electric motor is used to generate power for the mechanism. Most use a mechanical variable-speed drive combination with a momentary switch and a cam wheel to time the beats. Franz and Yamaha were common manufacturers in the 1960s and 1970s, such as the Franz LB4. A common optional feature was a neon lamp which lights up in time with the beat. Very few electromechanical metronomes provide time signature chimes in addition to the basic tempo.

Most modern metronomes are electronic and use a quartz crystal to maintain accuracy, comparable to those used in wristwatches. The simplest electronic metronomes have a dial or buttons to control the tempo; some also produce tuning notes, usually around the range of A440 (440 hertz). Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. Tones can differ in pitch, volume, and/or timbre to demarcate downbeats from other beats, as well as compound and complex time signatures.

Software metronomes run either as standalone applications on computers and smartphones, or in music sequencing and audio multitrack software packages. In recording studio applications, such as film scoring, a software metronome may provide a click track to synchronize musicians.

Users of iPods and other portable MP3 players can use prerecorded MP3 metronome click tracks, which can use different sounds and samples instead of the usual metronome beep. Users of smartphones can install a wide range of metronome applications. The Google search engine includes an interactive metronome that can play between 40 and 218 BPM.[22] Either method avoids the need to bring a physical metronome along to lessons or practice sessions.

Perhaps the most famous, and most direct, use of the metronome as an instrument is Gyrgy Ligeti's 1962 composition, Pome Symphonique for 100 metronomes. Two years earlier, Toshi Ichiyanagi wrote Music for Electric Metronomes. Maurice Ravel used three metronomes at different speeds for the opening of his opera L'heure espagnole (1911).[23]

The clicking sounds of mechanical metronomes have sometimes been used to provide a soft rhythm track without using any of the usual percussion instruments. Paul McCartney did this on "Distractions" (Flowers in the Dirt). Following the metronome, McCartney performed a rhythm track by hitting various parts of his body.[24] Also, in Ennio Morricone's theme "Farewell to Cheyenne" (featured on Once Upon a Time in the West), the steady clip-clop beat is provided by the deliberately distorted and slowed-down sound of a mechanical metronome.[25]

The metronome has been very important in performance practice, and largely unquestioned in musical pedagogy or scholarship, since the 20th century.[32] Author Miles Hoffman said that "most music teachers consider the metronome indispensable, and most professional musicians, in fact, continue to practice with a metronome throughout their careers".[28]

Author Bruce Haynes describes the role of the metronome in modern style in detail in his book The end of early music, for metronomic practice is now common worldwide.[33] He emphasizes that modern style is much more rhythmically rigid, in that tempo is steady and scores are read very literally, sometimes perceived as devoid of emotion in contrast to the rubato and bluster characteristic of Romantic music. Because of this, American musicologist and critic Richard Taruskin calls Modernism "refuge in order and precision, hostility to subjectivity, to the vagaries of personality," noting its order and precision.[33] These qualities give rise to the term metronomic, which critics use to describe modern performances with an unyielding tempo, mechanical rhythmic approach, and equal stress to all subintervals; American violinist Sol Babitz considered it "sewing machine" style with limited flexibility.[34] American musician Robert Hill also commented on the predictably regular beat characteristic of Modernism; he describes a trade-off, in that "we compensate our lack of timing flexibility by a very highly developed sense of tone-color and dynamic which, however refined and polished it may be, tends to abstract and de-personalize the music-making, underscoring its absoluteness". He also notes this as having changed greatly from the "standard" classical repertoire of the 19th century.[35]

In the early 19th century, the metronome was not used for ticking all through a piece, but only to check the tempo and then set it aside. This is in great contrast with many musicians today, who use the metronome in the background for the entirety of a piece of music.[36]

While this section highlights the modern trends of strict mechanical performance as something widespread in the 20th century and now, as early as 1860, some people advocated this type of "modern" performance practice.[38] While some in the 19th century welcomed the metronome,[39][40] others were critical (see below).

One of the underlying reasons for much early criticism may have been the fact that unlike traditional Italian tempo indications, metronome marks indicate a highly specific tempo, and are not easily reinterpreted in the way that the traditional Italian tempo indications are. Changes in aesthetics or in the instruments themselves can easily make speeds indicated earlier problematic,[41] which may explain why many notable nineteenth-century composers including Felix Mendelssohn, Richard Wagner, Giuseppe Verdi, and Johannes Brahms criticized use of the metronome.[42]

A metronome only provides a fixed, rigid, continuous pulse. Therefore, metronome markings on sheet music provide a reference, but cannot accurately communicate the pulse, swing, or groove of music. The pulse is often irregular,[43] e.g., in accelerando, rallentando, or in musical expression as in phrasing (rubato, etc.).

Some argue that a metronomic performance stands in conflict with an expressive culturally-aware performance of music, so that a metronome a very limited tool in this respect. Even such highly rhythmical musical forms as samba, if performed in correct cultural style, cannot be captured with the beats of a metronome; the steady beat of a metronome neglects the characteristic swing of samba.[44][45] A style of performance that is unfailingly regular rhythmically might be criticized as being metronomic.

Others argue that the metronome has no musical value, instead costing creativity and hurting the sense of rhythm in musicians rather than helping it. The use of a metronome has been compared to the difference between mechanically-aided and freehand drawing, in that the output with a metronome is said to be rigid and lacking creativity.[46] Similarly, the controllable constant speed and rigid repetition of a metronome has been described as possibly costing internal rhythm and musicality when abused or overused.[47] This contrasts with those who advocate its use as a training tool and exercises to cultivate a sense of rhythm. 2351a5e196