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Auditory cues, such as real-world sounds or music, influence how we perceive food. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of negatively and positively valenced mixtures of musical and non-musical sounds on the affective states of participants and their perception of chocolate ice cream. Consuming ice cream while listening to liked music (LM) and while listening to the combination of liked music and pleasant sound (LMPS) conditions gave rise to more positive emotions than listening to just pleasant sound (PS). Consuming ice cream during the LM condition resulted in the longest duration of perceived sweetness. On the other hand, PS and LMPS conditions resulted in cocoa dominating for longer. Bitterness and roasted were dominant under the disliked music and unpleasant sound (DMUS) and DM conditions respectively. Positive emotions correlated well with the temporal sensory perception of sweetness and cocoa when consuming chocolate ice cream under the positively valenced auditory conditions. In contrast, negative emotions were associated with bitter and roasted tastes/flavours under the negatively valenced auditory conditions. The combination of pleasant music and non-musical sound conditions evoked more positive emotions than when either was presented in isolation. Taken together, the results of this study support the view that sensory attributes correlated well with emotions evoked when consuming ice cream under different auditory conditions varying in terms of their valence.

One of the challenges, then, moving forward will be to repeat these kinds of demonstrations with wines that are more similar (perhaps starting with the same colour, then the same grape, and so on). Removing any obvious colour differences would certainly be an important first step in helping to rule out a colour-based account of many of the wine-music matching results that have been reported to date.

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Interestingly, when, at a recent workshop in Oxford [29], the attendees were asked on what basis they made their wine-music matches, a small number of people reported simply matching the wine they liked better with the music they liked better (i.e. a hedonic matching account). However, by far, the majority chose a common metaphorical attribute that the wine and music both had in common, such as robustness, lightness, complexity, sharpness or richness.

It is worth stressing that we have only reported on the results of the wine-music matching events that we are more familiar with. We are, though, aware that numerous other music-wine matching events have been taking place around the world over the last couple of years: from events organized by enologist and food engineer Stella Vassiliki in Crete, Greece, to the aforementioned music and wine matching workshop held in Oxford with Ben Houge [29]. A number of wine-music events have also been hosted in major cities such as London [14, 30, 31]Footnote 12 and Munich [31]. Clark Smith has also been active in this area, giving a presentation at the 2007 Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference (AWITC) in Adelaide exploring recent advances in cognitive musicology and speculating on parallels in wine sensory perception (see -and-music). Over the last few years, Martin Sachse-Weinert [32] has had more than 3000 people, including many wine industry professionals, matching music and wine. Meanwhile, Jo Burzynska working out of Christchurch, New Zealand ( -sound-and-wine/; -by-jo-burzynska/), has also been very active in this field. All - in - all, there has been a real explosion of interest in such wine-music matching events in recent years.

Crossmodal correspondences between typical wine aromas and musical notes and instrument types, established by Crisinel and Spence [40]. Graph shows mean pitch matched to each odour. Musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) note numbers were used to code the pitch of the chosen notes. Western musical scale notation is shown on the right-hand y-axis. Visual inspection of the figure reveals that high-pitched notes were preferred for fruit aromas (reprinted with permission)

One limitation with the instrument matching results that have been published to date, though, is that the participants have normally been forced to choose between four classes of instrument. What sort of matches would people come up with if given free choice of the instrument to match a given taste, aroma, flavour or even wine?Footnote 17 Other useful results when it comes to matching music to wine comes from research by Bronner et al. [13] funded by Symrise (an international flavour house). These researchers established certain musical parameters that paired especially well with citrus and vanilla aromas (see Table 1), two notes that one often finds in wine. Note that it is something of an open question here whether it is really the aroma that is captured musically or the sour and sweet tastes that are so often associated with citrus and vanilla aromas, respectively (e.g. see [42]). Indeed, potentially relevant here, somewhat stronger crossmodal associations were typically obtained by Crisinel and Spence for basic tastants rather than for odorants/flavours.

The focus so far in this review, and in the literature more generally, has very much been on instrumental music. As such, one area that has not really been touched upon as yet is the existence of any crossmodal matches that might exist between vocal sounds and taste/wine. However, it is clear that different speech-like sounds are consistently matched to different tastes ([51]; see also [52]). In addition, given the higher level matching mentioned above, such as male/female and young/old, one could easily imagine how there would be robust crossmodal correspondences between vocal sounds and wine. This is, then, undoubtedly another important area for researchers interested in the links between music and wine to explore in the coming years.

Having demonstrated the existence of robust crossmodal mappings between music, or musical parameters, and tastes, aromas, flavours and wines, the next question that comes to mind here is how best to account for such a phenomenon, that is, how best to account for that feeling of rightness that can accompany the pairing of wine with the appropriate music? Some have suggested synaesthesia, others oenesthesia, but as we hope to convince you here, crossmodal correspondences may represent a more appropriate and useful way to think about these surprising cross-sensory matches between seemingly unrelated stimuli that we all (or at least most of us) share.

Rather, we would like to argue that the crossmodal matches that have been reviewed here appear to be consistent across groups of observers and consist more of a feeling of appropriateness (that two complex stimuli, wine and music, go well together) than an actual experience of a gustatory concurrent on hearing the music or literally hearing the music on tasting the wine. For all of these reasons (and more; see [60], for a review of all the differences that have been outlined to date), we would like to suggest that in our opinion, what explains the crossmodal matches that have been reviewed here is not synaesthesia but rather crossmodal correspondences. Crucially, crossmodal correspondences are not just a weak form of synaesthesia (as has been suggested by [3]) but are a qualitatively different phenomena.

A second account is structural in nature (see [61]). It turns out that increasing stimulus intensity is coded by increased neural firing, regardless of the sensory input under consideration [62]. As such, there might be a common code for matching sensations in the way in which the brain codes information. Remember here the crossmodal matching of loudness with taste/flavour intensity we came across earlier [43]. It just might provide evidence of a structural correspondence. Though given the speed of statistical learning, it is always hard to rule that out as a potential account.

As we have seen already, people tend to match more intense tastes with louder sounds, which is at least consistent with (but by no means necessitated by) the structural account. We also use similar language and descriptors to talk about both music and wine (see [49, 64]). Indeed, the term sweet is used both to describe a basic taste, but also certain aromas, such as vanilla and strawberry, and a certain musical style, thus potentially supporting a semantic account. Finally, there is evidence to suggest that we associate music and wine based on emotions.

One can, we think, certainly envision how the various crossmodal correspondences between wine and music that have been highlighted in this review might fall into one or more of the four categories outlined above (note here also that the various explanations, or accounts, should certainly not be thought of as mutually exclusive). Semantic correspondences might, for example, turn out to be based on the statistical regularities of the environment. It will be the job of future research to determine what the most appropriate explanation (or, perhaps more likely, explanations) for each of the music-wine correspondences is.

In closing, it is important to note that the matching of sounds and music to taste and flavour is not something that is restricted solely to the world of wine. (It is just that there always seems to be far more research on wine than any other food or beverage product, no matter what the question you are looking at.)Footnote 24 While the focus in this piece has been squarely on wine, there is absolutely no reason why what has been done so far in the sphere of wine-music matching could not also be done for a variety of other beverages, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic. Indeed, as it so happens, the very first studies to be published in the area of drink-music matching were actually conducted with Carlsberg beer [72, 73]. In his seminal work, Holt-Hansen demonstrated that people match Carlsberg Elephant lager to a higher pitch than regular Carlsberg lager (perhaps because of its higher alcohol content). More recently, writers such as Pete Brown have also been running events in which they take their audiences through an evening of beer and music matching ([74]; see also [75], for another example of beer-music matching). 006ab0faaa