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A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally across the beam's axis (an element designed to carry a load pushing parallel to its axis would be a strut or column). Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending, as loads produce reaction forces at the beam's support points and internal bending moments, shear, stresses, strains, and deflections. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, where the beams are horizontal and carry vertical loads. However, any structure may contain beams, such as automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems. Any structural element, in any orientation, that primarily resists loads applied laterally across the element's axis is a beam.

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Historically a beam is a squared timber, but may also be made of metal, stone, or a combination of wood and metal[1] such as a flitch beam. Beams primarily carry vertical gravitational forces, but they are also used to carry horizontal loads such as those due to earthquake or wind, or in tension to resist rafter thrust (tie beam) or compression (collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, then to adjacent structural compression members, and eventually to the ground. In light frame construction, joists may rest on beams.

In the beam equation, the variable I represents the second moment of area or moment of inertia: it is the sum, along the axis, of dAr2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis and dA is a small patch of area. It measures not only the total area of the beam section, but the square of each patch's distance from the axis. A larger value of I indicates a stiffer beam, more resistant to bending.

Loads on a beam induce internal compressive, tensile and shear stresses (assuming no torsion or axial loading). Typically, under gravity loads, the beam bends into a slightly circular arc, with its original length compressed at the top to form an arc of smaller radius, while correspondingly stretched at the bottom to enclose an arc of larger radius in tension. This is known as sagging; while a configuration with the top in tension, for example over a support, is known as hogging. The axis of the beam retaining its original length, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure).

Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment-carrying capacity of the beam. Prestressed beams are commonly used on highway bridges.

Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a more efficient cross section for a beam is an I or H section which is typically seen in steel construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.

An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at the profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H where it is less efficient. The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell); the most efficient shape for bending in any direction, however, is a cylindrical shell or tube. For unidirectional bending, the I or wide flange beam is superior.[citation needed]

A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure). The cross section of thin walled beams is made up from thin panels connected among themselves to create closed or open cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections include round, square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled beams exist because their bending stiffness per unit cross sectional area is much higher than that for solid cross sections such a rod or bar. In this way, stiff beams can be achieved with minimum weight. Thin walled beams are particularly useful when the material is a composite laminate. Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled beams was done by Librescu.

The torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its cross sectional shape. For open sections, such as I sections, warping deflections occur which, if restrained, greatly increase the torsional stiffness.[6]

I have two 5D Mark 3 camera bodies which I use to shoot weddings. At night's end, the lights are OUT and my camera cannot auto focus in such darkness or very low light, so I need the assist beam to help me out and turn on. My cameras are shooting in 'one shot' mode, and under the menu section AF, the AF assist-beam is enabled and 'on' yet still the red beam of light will not go on. What is happening here? The problem is doubled when I am trying to fire a flash either on or off camera, and because the auto-focus can't find anything to focus on (with no red assist beam to help) in such low light, the shutter will not work. I can override this but I'm still shooting in such low light, and my beam isn't going on to help. I haven't been able to find this exact issue on the message board--or folks say it resolved for them when they got out of AI servo and put their camera on One Shot mode, which I've already done. Thanks for help!!

Hi Mike, I am using a Yongnuo Digital speedlite YN600EX-RT flash. Is it a problem with my flash? I guess I am confused about where the red assist beam is emitted and controlled from--is it actually coming from my flash but controlled by my camera? Or emitted from the flash and controlled both by settings on my camera AND the flash?

I am using a Yongnuo Speedlite YN600-EX-RT that is at least 5 years old, maybe more (not sure) and I'm not sure how to enable the AF assist beam on the flash itself. Do you enable that through the flash directly, somehow, or via the camera it's attached to? Do you know what AF point I can't use to make sure the speedlite assist beam goes off?

Narrator: Mayo Clinic's Cancer Center offers a full range of services and treatment options to meet your individual needs, including the latest innovations in proton beam therapy. Our new proton beam therapy program has the most up-to-date technology called intensity modulated pencil beam scanning. This is a highly targeted and precise way of administering radiation therapy. It allows delivery of higher doses of radiation to tumors while minimizing the damage to nearby healthy tissue and organs. Significant benefits can be achieved by integrating proton beam therapy with other treatment approaches. Children, young adults and healthy older adults with potentially curable cancers located near or within critical organs will receive the greatest benefit. So let's see how it works.

Common sources of protons used in proton beam facilities are hydrogen gas and water. In the case of water, the protons come from removing a hydrogen atom from a water molecule. These tiny particles are then modified so that they carry an electrical charge. The charged protons are accelerated at 2/3 the speed of light in a series of magnets called the synchrotron. This proton beam is then directed by even more magnets down the beam line into the treatment rooms and aimed precisely at the patient's tumor.

During the treatment, the beam is delivered into the tumor where it stops in a burst of energy. The biggest impact is released precisely within the tumor, where the energy from the proton beam breaks the tumor cell's DNA, damaging them beyond repair and rendering the cancer cells unable to reproduce. Unlike conventional x-ray photon therapy, which delivers a steady stream of damaging radiation to normal tissue surrounding the tumor, protons deliver minimal dose outside the tumor. Therefore, proton therapy can avoid damaging and debilitating side effects to the normal surrounding tissues.

Intensity modulated pencil beam scanning will be used at the Mayo Clinic Proton Beam Centers. It is the most advanced form of proton beam therapy and uniquely conforms the radiation dose to the shape of the tumor. The precise proton beam is used like a brush to paint every part of the tumor while sparing surrounding tissue. Its precision allows the targeting of tumors near critical organs, like the esophageal cancer shown here, with much less dose and less risk of potential damage to the nearby spinal cord, heart and lungs. During one treatment session, the proton may be delivered to the tumor from more than one angle. The patient, meanwhile, can't see or feel the proton beam at all. This therapy is also a particular benefit to pediatric patients in that it can provide the same or higher dose to a tumor while delivering less overall radiation exposure to their vulnerable growing organs. This results in less risk of toxicity, growth delays or radiation-induced malignancies. Greater control of radiation doses, more accurate targeting of tumors and reduced side effects. These are just a few of the potential benefits of cancer treatment at the Mayo Clinic Proton Beam Therapy Program. 2351a5e196