Deep Blue Download Chess

Deep Blue was a chess-playing expert system run on a unique purpose-built IBM supercomputer. It was the first computer to win a game, and the first to win a match, against a reigning world champion under regular time controls. Development began in 1985 at Carnegie Mellon University under the name ChipTest. It then moved to IBM, where it was first renamed Deep Thought, then again in 1989 to Deep Blue. It first played world champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match in 1996, where it lost four games to two. It was upgraded in 1997 and in a six-game re-match, it defeated Kasparov by winning two games and drawing three. Deep Blue's victory is considered a milestone in the history of artificial intelligence and has been the subject of several books and films.

While a doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon University, Feng-hsiung Hsu began development of a chess-playing supercomputer under the name ChipTest. The machine won the North American Computer Chess Championship in 1987 and Hsu and his team followed up with a successor, Deep Thought, in 1988.[2][3] After receiving his doctorate in 1989, Hsu and Murray Campbell joined IBM Research to continue their project to build a machine that could defeat a world chess champion.[4] Their colleague Thomas Anantharaman briefly joined them at IBM before leaving for the finance industry and being replaced by programmer Arthur Joseph Hoane.[5][6] Jerry Brody, a long-time employee of IBM Research, subsequently joined the team in 1990.[7]

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After Deep Thought's two-game 1989 loss to Kasparov, IBM held a contest to rename the chess machine: the winning name was "Deep Blue", submitted by Peter Fitzhugh Brown,[8] was a play on IBM's nickname, "Big Blue".[a] After a scaled-down version of Deep Blue played Grandmaster Joel Benjamin,[10] Hsu and Campbell decided that Benjamin was the expert they were looking for to help develop Deep Blue's opening book, so hired him to assist with the preparations for Deep Blue's matches against Garry Kasparov.[11] In 1995, a Deep Blue prototype played in the eighth World Computer Chess Championship, playing Wchess to a draw before ultimately losing to Fritz in round five, despite playing as White.[12]

After his loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw unusual creativity in the machine's moves, suggesting that during the second game, human chess players had intervened on behalf of the machine. IBM denied this, saying the only human intervention occurred between games.[26][27] Kasparov demanded a rematch, but IBM had dismantled Deep Blue after its victory and refused the rematch.[28] The rules allowed the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they said they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play that were revealed during the course of the match. Kasparov requested printouts of the machine's log files, but IBM refused, although the company later published the logs on the Internet.[29]

Computer scientists such as Deep Blue developer Campbell believed that playing chess was a good measurement for the effectiveness of artificial intelligence, and by beating a world champion chess player, IBM showed that they had made significant progress.[3] Deep Blue is also responsible for the popularity of using games as a display medium for artificial intelligence, as in the cases of IBM Watson or AlphaGo.[40]

While Deep Blue, with its capability of evaluating 200 million positions per second,[41] was the first computer to face a world chess champion in a formal match,[3] it was a then-state-of-the-art expert system, relying upon rules and variables defined and fine-tuned by chess masters and computer scientists. In contrast, current chess engines such as Leela Chess Zero typically use reinforcement machine learning systems that train a neural network to play, developing its own internal logic rather than relying upon rules defined by human experts.[38]

Deep Blue's evaluation function was initially written in a generalized form, with many to-be-determined parameters (e.g., how important is a safe king position compared to a space advantage in the center, etc.). Values for these parameters were determined by analyzing thousands of master games. The evaluation function was then split into 8,000 parts, many of them designed for special positions. The opening book encapsulated more than 4,000 positions and 700,000 grandmaster games, while the endgame database contained many six-piece endgames and all five and fewer piece endgames. An additional database named the "extended book" summarizes entire games played by Grandmasters. The system combines its searching ability of 200 million chess positions per second with summary information in the extended book to select opening moves.[44]

Before the second match, the program's rules were fine-tuned by grandmaster Joel Benjamin. The opening library was provided by grandmasters Miguel Illescas, John Fedorowicz, and Nick de Firmian.[45] When Kasparov requested that he be allowed to study other games that Deep Blue had played so as to better understand his opponent, IBM refused, leading Kasparov to study many popular PC chess games to familiarize himself with computer gameplay.[46]

IBM's Deep Blue made history in 1997 when it became the first machine to beat a reigning world chess champion. A research team led by IEEE Senior Member Murray Campbell and Feng-hsiung Hsu developed the machine.

Kasparov accused the IBM team of cheating its way to victory. In reality, though, scientists had been interested in programming a computer to play chess since the late 1940s, according to an article on IBM's blog about Deep Blue. It took years for engineers and computer scientists to perfect the artificial intelligence program that would one day beat a world champion.

Deep Blue's story began in 1985, when Hsu, then a Carnegie Mellon graduate student, started working on his dissertation project: ChipTest, a chess-playing machine. Hsu worked with Campbell, who was a research associate at the university, and graduate student Thomas Anatharaman, an IEEE member, to develop ChipTest. Hsu and Campbell later joined IBM Research in Yorktown Heights, N.Y., in 1989. The duo continued developing a chess-playing machine but this time with other computer scientists working on the Deep Blue project.

The final version of the machine consisted of two 2-meter-tall towers, more than 500 processors, and 216 accelerator chips designed for computer chess, according to a paper Campbell and Hsu wrote about Deep Blue for the Artificial Intelligence journal.

The machine's software would calculate the basic moves it could make in response to its opponent before the accelerator chips carried out more complex calculations such as assessing possible outcomes of various moves and determining the best one. The computer would decide which route to take based on the information gathered by the chips. Deep Blue could explore up to 100 million possible chess positions per second, according to the IBM article.

The team knew chess was the right game for Deep Blue to play, but the researchers had little experience with chess themselves. The team brought in grandmasters such as Joel Benjamin, who, at 13, had become the youngest-ever U.S. chess master.

Humans have been studying chess openings for centuries and developed their own favorite moves," Campbell told Scientific American. The grandmasters helped us choose a bunch of those to program into Deep Blue.

For much of modern history, chess playing has been seen as a "litmus test" of the ability for computers to act intelligently. In 1770, the Hungarian inventor Wolfgang von Kempelen unveiled "The Turk", a (fake) chess-playing machine. Although the actual machine worked by allowing a human chess player to sit inside of it and decide the machine's moves, audiences around the world were fascinated by the idea of a machine that could perform intelligent tasks at the same level as humans.

With the advent of computers in the 1940s, researchers and hobbyists began the first serious attempts at making an intelligent chess-playing machine. In 1950, Claude Shannon published a groundbreaking paper entitled "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", which first put forth the idea of a function for evaluating the efficacy of a particular move and a "minimax" algorithm which took advantage of this evaluation function by taking into account the efficacy of future moves that would be made available by any particular move. This work provided a framework for all future research in computer chess playing.

As was the case with many subfields of Artificial Intelligence at this time, progress in the development of chess-playing hardware lagged behind the theoretical frameworks developed in the 60s and 70s, building on Shannon's work. The public was doubtful that a machine would ever be able to defeat a proficient human chess player. Chessmaster and computer chess pioneer David Levy famously made the following statement in 1968: "Prompted by the lack of conceptual progress over more than two decades, I am tempted to speculate that a computer program will not gain the title of International Master before the turn of the century and that the idea of an electronic world champion belongs only in the pages of a science fiction book."

In the mid-1990s, however, the tides began to change. Despite the lingering skepticism of the chess community (when asked to confirm his belief that Garry Kasparov could beat any existing computer chess program, Levy stated, "I'm positive. I'd stake my life on it"), chess-playing computers began to beat extremely proficient chess players in exhibition matches. The turning point came in 1997, when Chessmaster Garry Kasparov faced off against IBM's chess-playing computer Deep Blue in New York, NY in an official match under tournament regulations. Despite having lost a previous match against Kasparov in 1996, Deep Blue won the 1997 match 3.5 to 2.5 and became the first computer program to defeat a world chess champion in match play. e24fc04721