The table below shows how each of the 128 directions are named. The first two columns give the number of points and degrees clockwise from north. The third gives the equivalent bearing to the nearest degree from north or south towards east or west. The "CW" column gives the fractional-point bearings increasing in the clockwise direction and "CCW" counterclockwise. The final three columns show three common naming conventions: No "by" avoids the use of "by" with fractional points. Colour coding shows whether each of the three naming systems matches the "CW" or "CCW" column.
The traditional compass rose of eight winds (and its 16-wind and 32-wind derivatives) was invented by seafarers in the Mediterranean Sea during the Middle Ages (with no obvious connection to the twelve classical compass winds of the ancient Greeks and Romans). The traditional mariner's wind names were expressed in Italian, or more precisely, the Italianate Mediterranean lingua franca common among sailors in the 13th and 14th centuries, which was principally composed of Genoese (Ligurian), mixed with Venetian, Sicilian, Provenal, Catalan, Greek, and Arabic terms from around the Mediterranean basin.
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This Italianate patois was used to designate the names of the principal winds on the compass rose found in mariners' compasses and portolan charts of the 14th and 15th centuries. The "traditional" names of the eight principal winds are:
Local spelling variations are far more numerous than listed, e.g. Tramutana, Gregale, Grecho, Sirocco, Xaloc, Lebeg, Libezo, Leveche, Mezzodi, Migjorn, Magistro, Mestre, etc. Traditional compass roses will typically have the initials T, G, L, S, O, L, P, and M on the main points. Portolan charts also colour-coded the compass winds: black for the eight principal winds, green for the eight half-winds, and red for the sixteen quarter-winds.
Navigation texts dating from the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties in China use a 24-pointed compass with named directions. These are based on the twelve Earthly Branches, which also form the basis of the Chinese zodiac. When a single direction is specified, it may be prefaced by the characterĀ (meaning single) or .
The atoms act like tiny compass needles and unfold their effect over tiny distances in the nanometre range, meaning a few millionths of a millimeter. That is why researchers also call them nanomagnets.
The phenomenon that researchers at PSI have now been able to observe is based on an interaction that the two physicists Igor Dzyaloshinskii and Toru Mariya predicted more than 60 years ago. "That was our starting point," says Zhaochu Luo, physicist at PSI and ETH Zurich.
In this interaction, the atomic compass needles do not only align in a North-South direction, but also in an East-West direction. "Where they point depends on how the atoms in their neighbourhood orient themselves," says Zhaochu Luo, first author of the study. For example, if a group of atoms points North, the neighbouring group always points West. And if a group of atoms points South, then the neighbouring atoms orient themselves to the East.
These orientations can be reversed by magnetic fields or electric currents, that is from North to South and vice versa. The neighbouring atomic groups then reorient themselves accordingly, either from West to East or vice versa.
The researchers discovered the coupling of North-West and South-East orientation with the help of a layer of cobalt atoms only 1.6 nanometres thick, which was sandwiched between a platinum layer on one side and an aluminium oxide layer on the other. "The development of these special layers for our experiments alone took about half a year," says Zhaochu Luo. He works in the Mesoscopic Systems research group at PSI lead by Laura Heyderman, who is also professor at ETH Zurich.
What is unusual is that this interaction takes place laterally, that is in one plane. Previously, comparable couplings between nanomagnets could only be detected vertically, with groups of atoms arranged one above the other.
The phenomenon observed jointly by PSI and ETH Zurich researchers enables the development of planar magnetic networks. Among other things, synthetic antiferromagnets can be produced. In these antiferromagnets, atomic groups point either North or South at regular intervals. The number of opposing nanomagnets is approximately the same, so that they neutralize each other in sum. This is why, at first glance, antiferromagnets do not act like magnets -- for example, they do not stick to a fridge door.
The neighbouring atoms, which are oriented either to the West or to the East, act as spacers separating the magnets pointing North or South, each of which is as small as a few nanometres. This makes it possible, for example, to build new, more efficient computer memories and switches, which in turn makes microprocessors more powerful.
The individual nanomagnets, which face either North or South, are suitable for constructing logic gates. A logic gate is a building block in a computer and functions as a kind of switch. Signals enter these gates and are then processed into an output signal. In a computer, many of these gates are networked to perform operations. Such a gate can also be constructed with the help of nanomagnets aligned to the North or South. These are analogous to processors commonly used today with transistors processing signals in binary form, which interpret all signals as zero or one. Nanomagnets that are oriented either North or South can also do this. This could make microprocessors more compact and efficient.
According to Pietro Gambardella, who supervised this study with Laura Heyderman, "this work provides a platform to design arrays of linked nanomagnets and achieve all-electric control of planar logic gates and storage devices," the scientists now write in Science.
The southernmost point of the United States is Ka Lae on the southern tip of the island of Hawaii. I determined this point by using My Methodology. Ka Lae is also the south-southwesternmost point of the United States. However, as I've stated in My Rules, for logistical reasons I'm visiting only the contiguous United States (i.e., the Lower 48) during my 2016 trip around America, so that's the focus of this website.
The main goal of my eight-month trip around America was to become the first person to visit all 16 extreme geographic compass points in the contiguous United States (i.e., the Lower 48 states). Before I left on my trip, I did some research using my computer mapping software to help me identify the exact locations, and most of the 16 points had been easy to locate (see My Methodology). I left Portland, Oregon in the spring of 2016 and visited my first extreme point, the westernmost point of the U.S. at Cape Alava in Washington state, on April 30. By early November, I had reached Florida and, after driving over 20,000 miles around North America, I'd visited 13 of the 16 extreme points.
Using that rule, I was able to locate the southeasternmost point of the mainland contiguous United States. Looking at the satellite imagery, I identified a point at a place on Card Sound south of the city of Homestead just before you reach the first bridge that heads to Key Largo. This is the southeasternmost point of the U.S. mainland that you can walk to during high tide. Likewise, I determined that the south-southeasternmost point is on the right-of-way of Highway 1 south of Homestead and just before you encounter the first bridge, which crosses a narrow waterway to a place called Pelican Key.
The evening after I visited the the southeasternmost and the south-southeasternmost points of the mainland contiguous United States, I camped at Pennekamp State Park in the Florida Keys. The next day I left the Keys and headed north once again, this time going into the city of Homestead and then west to Everglades National Park. I stopped at the impressive Everglades Visitor Center just past the park entrance and got some information about the Coastal Prairie Trail that extends about seven miles west of Flamingo towards Cape Sable, then I got back in the truck and headed south.
I was disappointed not to get out to Cape Sable, of course, but my goal on this trip was to get as close as possible to each of the 16 extreme compass points in the contiguous United States. Some of the points had been impossible to reach, like the southwesternmost point of the U.S.near Santa Barbara, California, which is on an Air Force Base and is thus off-limits to the public, or the sites in northern Maine that were on private property. I'd gotten as close as possible to each of the 16 points, so this one, I suppose, was no different. As I sat by the beach, an Asian tourist walked by and, with a smile, said in broken English, "There are lots of bugs here. Do you need some spray?" "No thanks," I smiled and said. "I have my own." A friendly gesture. And yes, bugs. Lots of them.
After saying goodbye to buggy Flamingo, I headed out but stopped a few minutes later at a pond to take some pictures. A young couple from France were there, swatting themselves. I paid it forward and gave them the half-filled can of "Off" in my truck and they were grateful. "There are lots of mosquitoes here," they said. "Yep," I said, "and they'll be a lot more after the sun sets, so be ready!"
I walked back to my campsite after the movie and blew out the candle lantern. After visiting all 16 extreme compass points of the U.S. and 56 other extreme sites around the country, my Extreme Geography adventure was over. It was time to head home.
To get to this point, travel to Everglades National Park in southern Florida. Continue on the road past the Visitor Center for about 45 miles until you reach the end, at a village called Flamingo. Drive to the picnic area near the campground and walk a few hundred yards south to the shore of Florida Bay. The southernmost point is by the tree near the small beach.
Entering Everglades National Park. This was my first visit since 1995.The Everglades are a freshwater sea of grass. The highway is the highest point, just a few inches above the water level.This must be the lowest pass in America. The park rangers have a good sense of humor.After driving about 40 miles south, you reach the end of the road at the village of Flamingo. This is the marina.They rent canoes here (in fact, I rented one during my last visit in 1995). But due to the high winds, you can't paddle them very far. I wanted to paddle one 11 miles to Cape Sable, but realized it wasn't feasible.The National Park Visitor Center at Flamingo. Flamingo is notorious for mosquitoes -- lots and lots of mosquitoes.Inside of the Visitor Center.I talked to Ranger Bob for about 20 minutes and told him I was hoping to paddle or walk to Cape Sable, the southernmost point of the contiguous United States. But he basically told me to forget about doing it. After talking to him, I decided to call it good at Flamingo and not try to get to Cape Sable.The Flamingo Campground is notorious for mosquitoes. In 1987 I spent the most unpleasant night of my life here, camping in the back of my then-Toyota truck. I didn't want to try that again.Standing at the southernmost point of the contiguous United States at Flamingo. And here's my GPS reading.The actual southernmost point, Cape Sable, is about 11 miles in that direction, but you can't hike there (due to 100-foot wide canal that you have to swim across). 152ee80cbc
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