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Classes are a template for creating objects. They encapsulate data with code to work on that data. Classes in JS are built on prototypes but also have some syntax and semantics that are unique to classes.

Like function expressions, class expressions may be anonymous, or have a name that's different from the variable that it's assigned to. However, unlike function declarations, class declarations have the same temporal dead zone restrictions as let or const and behave as if they are not hoisted.

Methods are defined on the prototype of each class instance and are shared by all instances. Methods can be plain functions, async functions, generator functions, or async generator functions. For more information, see method definitions.

The static keyword defines a static method or field for a class. Static properties (fields and methods) are defined on the class itself instead of each instance. Static methods are often used to create utility functions for an application, whereas static fields are useful for caches, fixed-configuration, or any other data that doesn't need to be replicated across instances.

As seen above, the fields can be declared with or without a default value. Fields without default values default to undefined. By declaring fields up-front, class definitions become more self-documenting, and the fields are always present, which help with optimizations.

It's an error to reference private fields from outside of the class; they can only be read or written within the class body. By defining things that are not visible outside of the class, you ensure that your classes' users can't depend on internals, which may change from version to version.

When a static or instance method is called without a value for this, such as by assigning the method to a variable and then calling it, the this value will be undefined inside the method. This behavior is the same even if the "use strict" directive isn't present, because code within the class body is always executed in strict mode.

\n It's an error to reference private fields from outside of the class; they can only be read or written within the class body.\n By defining things that are not visible outside of the class, you ensure that your classes' users can't depend on internals, which may change from version to version.\n

When a static or instance method is called without a value for this, such as by assigning the method to a variable and then calling it, the this value will be undefined inside the method. This behavior is the same even if the \"use strict\" directive isn't present, because code within the class body is always executed in strict mode.

A type that is defined as a class is a reference type. At run time, when you declare a variable of a reference type, the variable contains the value null until you explicitly create an instance of the class by using the new operator, or assign it an object of a compatible type that may have been created elsewhere, as shown in the following example:

An optional access modifier precedes the class keyword. Because public is used in this case, anyone can create instances of this class. The name of the class follows the class keyword. The name of the class must be a valid C# identifier name. The remainder of the definition is the class body, where the behavior and data are defined. Fields, properties, methods, and events on a class are collectively referred to as class members.

Although they're sometimes used interchangeably, a class and an object are different things. A class defines a type of object, but it isn't an object itself. An object is a concrete entity based on a class, and is sometimes referred to as an instance of a class.

When an instance of a class is created, a reference to the object is passed back to the programmer. In the previous example, object1 is a reference to an object that is based on Customer. This reference refers to the new object but doesn't contain the object data itself. In fact, you can create an object reference without creating an object at all:

This code creates two object references that both refer to the same object. Therefore, any changes to the object made through object3 are reflected in subsequent uses of object4. Because objects that are based on classes are referred to by reference, classes are known as reference types.

The preceding sections introduced the syntax to declare a class type and create an instance of that type. When you create an instance of a type, you want to ensure that its fields and properties are initialized to useful values. There are several ways to initialize values:

Adding parameters to the class name defines the primary constructor. Those parameters are available in the class body, which includes its members. You can use them to initialize fields or anywhere else where they're needed.

Classes fully support inheritance, a fundamental characteristic of object-oriented programming. When you create a class, you can inherit from any other class that isn't defined as sealed. Other classes can inherit from your class and override class virtual methods. Furthermore, you can implement one or more interfaces.

Inheritance is accomplished by using a derivation, which means a class is declared by using a base class from which it inherits data and behavior. A base class is specified by appending a colon and the name of the base class following the derived class name, like this:

A class in C# can only directly inherit from one base class. However, because a base class may itself inherit from another class, a class might indirectly inherit multiple base classes. Furthermore, a class can directly implement one or more interfaces. For more information, see Interfaces.

A class can be declared as abstract. An abstract class contains abstract methods that have a signature definition but no implementation. Abstract classes can't be instantiated. They can only be used through derived classes that implement the abstract methods. By contrast, a sealed class doesn't allow other classes to derive from it. For more information, see Abstract and Sealed Classes and Class Members.

Note that the field needs to be initialized in the constructor itself.TypeScript does not analyze methods you invoke from the constructor to detect initializations, because a derived class might override those methods and fail to initialize the members.

If you intend to definitely initialize a field through means other than the constructor (for example, maybe an external library is filling in part of your class for you), you can use the definite assignment assertion operator, !:

When target >= ES2022 or useDefineForClassFields is true, class fields are initialized after the parent class constructor completes, overwriting any value set by the parent class. This can be a problem when you only want to re-declare a more accurate type for an inherited field. To handle these cases, you can write declare to indicate to TypeScript that there should be no runtime effect for this field declaration.

If you need to protect values in your class from malicious actors, you should use mechanisms that offer hard runtime privacy, such as closures, WeakMaps, or private fields. Note that these added privacy checks during runtime could affect performance.

Long story short, by default, the value of this inside a function depends on how the function was called.In this example, because the function was called through the obj reference, its value of this was obj rather than the class instance.

You can use this is Type in the return position for methods in classes and interfaces.When mixed with a type narrowing (e.g. if statements) the type of the target object would be narrowed to the specified Type.

TypeScript offers special syntax for turning a constructor parameter into a class property with the same name and value.These are called parameter properties and are created by prefixing a constructor argument with one of the visibility modifiers public, private, protected, or readonly.The resulting field gets those modifier(s):

To close the type hierarchy, use the final modifier.This prevents subtyping from a class outside of the current library. Disallowing both inheritance and implementation prevents subtyping entirely.This guarantees: 2351a5e196