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Over the last decade, researchers in science education have identified a variety of student beliefs that shape and are shaped by student classroom experience.1,4,5,7 Based on studies of students' beliefs, researchers have developed instruments designed to probe these beliefs.8

In biological classification, class (Latin: classis) is a taxonomic rank, as well as a taxonomic unit, a taxon, in that rank. It is a group of related taxonomic orders.[a] Other well-known ranks in descending order of size are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, order, family, genus, and species, with class ranking between phylum and order.

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The class as a distinct rank of biological classification having its own distinctive name (and not just called a top-level genus (genus summum)) was first introduced by the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in his classification of plants that appeared in his Elments de botanique, 1694.

In the first edition of his Systema Naturae (1735),[2] Carl Linnaeus divided all three of his kingdoms of Nature (minerals, plants, and animals) into classes. Only in the animal kingdom are Linnaeus's classes similar to the classes used today; his classes and orders of plants were never intended to represent natural groups, but rather to provide a convenient "artificial key" according to his Systema Sexuale, largely based on the arrangement of flowers. In botany, classes are now rarely discussed. Since the first publication of the APG system in 1998, which proposed a taxonomy of the flowering plants up to the level of orders, many sources have preferred to treat ranks higher than orders as informal clades. Where formal ranks have been assigned, the ranks have been reduced to a very much lower level, e.g. class Equisitopsida for the land plants, with the major divisions within the class assigned to subclasses and superorders.[3]

The class was considered the highest level of the taxonomic hierarchy until George Cuvier's embranchements, first called Phyla by Ernst Haeckel,[4] were introduced in the early nineteenth century.

This paper describes a newly adapted instrument for measuring novice-to-expert-like perceptions about biology: the Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science Survey for Biology (CLASS-Bio). Consisting of 31 Likert-scale statements, CLASS-Bio probes a range of perceptions that vary between experts and novices, including enjoyment of the discipline, propensity to make connections to the real world, recognition of conceptual connections underlying knowledge, and problem-solving strategies. CLASS-Bio has been tested for response validity with both undergraduate students and experts (biology PhDs), allowing student responses to be directly compared with a consensus expert response. Use of CLASS-Bio to date suggests that introductory biology courses have the same challenges as introductory physics and chemistry courses: namely, students shift toward more novice-like perceptions following instruction. However, students in upper-division biology courses do not show the same novice-like shifts. CLASS-Bio can also be paired with other assessments to: 1) examine how student perceptions impact learning and conceptual understanding of biology, and 2) assess and evaluate how pedagogical techniques help students develop both expertise in problem solving and an expert-like appreciation of the nature of biology.

One way to examine student perceptions about biology is on a continuum of novice-to-expert level. Hammer (1994) proposed that differences between how experts and novices view a discipline can be characterized into three main areas: 1) content and structure of knowledge, 2) source of knowledge, and 3) problem-solving approaches. In the first area, content and structure of knowledge, experts believe knowledge is structured around a coherent framework of concepts, while novices believe knowledge comprises isolated facts that are not interrelated. In the second area, source of knowledge, experts believe knowledge about the world is established by experiments that describe nature, while novices believe knowledge is handed down by authority and do not see a connection to the real world. Finally, with regard to problem-solving approaches, experts rely on concept-based strategies that are widely applicable to multiple problem-solving situations, while novices will often apply pattern-matching to memorized problems and focus on surface features, rather than underlying concepts. Examination of all three of these areas demonstrates that experts not only have a deeper conceptual knowledge of a discipline, but they also hold more sophisticated views about how scientific knowledge is obtained, expanded, and structured, as well as how to approach unsolved problems.

To specifically examine how students perceive the field of biology on this expert-to-novice continuum, the Colorado Learning Attitudes about Science for Physics (CLASS-Phys; Adams et al., 2006) was modified for biology. The CLASS-Phys survey was designed to probe student perceptions encompassing the three types of novice/expert thinking mentioned above and to allow for a direct comparison of student perceptions to expert perceptions (Adams et al., 2006). CLASS-Phys was also recently modified for chemistry (CLASS-Chem; Barbera et al., 2008). Like CLASS-Phys and -Chem, CLASS-Bio is designed for use in a wide range of university courses in the field of biology (major and nonmajor courses; lower- and upper-division courses). Evidence of response validity was collected through interviews with students and experts (biology PhDs) from various subdisciplines within the field of biology. This paper describes CLASS-Bio's design, evidence of its instrument validity, and results of its initial use in classrooms.

The scoring and administration of CLASS-Bio follow the same protocols determined for the CLASS-Phys and -Chem surveys (Adams et al., 2006; Barbera et al., 2008). The instrument is given to students online at the beginning and end of the semester, and students receive participation points (specific credit determined by instructor) for completing the survey. Student response rate for CLASS-Bio is high: the average response rate from seven classes across two different institutions is 75% for preinstruction surveys and 70% for postinstruction surveys.

CLASS-Bio was created following the same procedures used to adapt CLASS-Phys for Chemistry (Barbera et al., 2008; Table 1). CLASS-Phys, -Chem, and -Bio statements were modified, added, or dropped based on faculty working-group discussions, student interviews, expert reviews, and factor analysis. Evidence of response validity was collected for individual statements through both student interviews and expert reviews. A pilot version of CLASS-Bio was given in Fall 2007, and after further modification, a final version in Fall 2008. After both versions were administered, CLASS-Bio statements were grouped into categories of student thinking based on results of a factor analysis on responses from large introductory biology lecture courses. Finally, reliability and concurrent validity (whether the instrument can detect expected differences between populations) were measured for the final version of CLASS-Bio. Table 1. Sequence of CLASS-Bio statement development

The initial factor analysis on student responses was performed on responses from the Fall 2007 pilot version of CLASS-Bio, administered to students in two large Ecology and Evolutionary Biology (EBIO) introductory biology courses (n = 627). The second independent factor analysis was performed on responses from the final version of CLASS-Bio statements administered to students in the same courses in Fall 2008 (n = 673). Results from the Fall 2007 factor analysis resulted in 26 statements grouped into six robust and overlapping categories. Eighteen statements did not fall into any robust categories. While 14 of these were dropped from the instrument, four statements remained because they examined unique ideas and expert comments suggested that these statements were of general interest to faculty. The addition of student responses (n = 214) from a CU Molecular Cellular and Developmental Biology (MCDB) introductory biology course into the data set did not alter the results of the initial factor analysis (unpublished data), so only EBIO student data were used for the analyses.

We have given the final version of CLASS-Bio to students in both introductory and upper-division biology courses across four institutions (CU; UBC; Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA; and University of Maryland, College Park, MD). Data from CU's Department of Integrative Physiology (IPHY), MCDB, and EBIO, and UBC's biology program are presented here.

CLASS-Bio has been developed and rigorously tested for use in evaluating the novice-to-expert levels of student perceptions about the discipline of biology. The clarity and interpretation of this instrument's statements have been verified through 39 student interviews and expert consensus from 69 PhDs representing 30 institutions. Furthermore, CLASS-Bio is reliable when given to similar students in two different years and can also detect differences among major and nonmajor student populations. CLASS-Bio is unique among epistemological instruments, because it directly compares student responses with those of experts in the field and uses student data to determine categories of student thinking.

While the adaptation of CLASS-Phys for chemistry resulted in a similar instrument, differing primarily with respect to concept-based statements unique to each discipline, CLASS-Bio statements and categories differ more extensively. This difference is likely due to the fact that a higher proportion of statements on CLASS-Bio were either substantially reworded to be applicable to the discipline or are entirely new statements. As a result, the statement composition of CLASS-Bio categories (Table 3) is noticeably different compared with the other instruments and this fact should be considered when comparing responses across CLASS-Phys, -Chem, and -Bio instruments. However, whether statement groupings are different because of a unique pool of statements or because of a difference in how biology students view their discipline is challenging to interpret without further study. While the specific statements vary among the categories, it is important to note that the categories still appear to represent the same fundamental differences between novices and experts in how they view the discipline of biology (e.g., enjoyment of the discipline, likelihood of making connections to the real world, problem-solving strategies, etc.). Furthermore, two independent factor analyses on Fall 2007 and Fall 2008 data resulted in similar categories, lending further evidence that CLASS-Bio categories represent meaningful and consistent aspects of student thinking about biology. e24fc04721