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A network adapter, also known as a network interface card (NIC) or network interface controller, is a hardware component that allows computers, servers or other devices to connect to a network.
It provides the required physical interface for the device to transmit and receive data over a network.
Network adapters typically have a unique identifier called a MAC (Media Access Control) address, which is used to distinguish devices on a network.
They can be integrated into a computer's motherboard or added as an expansion card.
Network_Adapters.pdfHere are some key points about network adapters:
Purpose: Network adapters are essential for connecting devices to a network, whether it's a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), or the internet. They are used in computers, servers, routers, switches, and various other networked devices.
Types of Network Adapters:
Ethernet NIC: This is the most common type of network adapter and is used for wired Ethernet connections. It typically has an RJ-45 port for connecting to Ethernet cables.
Wireless NIC: These adapters are used for wireless connections and are often integrated into laptops and mobile devices. They connect to Wi-Fi networks.
Fiber Optic NIC: These are specialized network adapters designed for high-speed fiber optic connections, commonly used in data centers and high-performance computing environments.
Functions: Network adapters perform several important functions, including:
Data Link Layer Processing: They handle the framing, addressing, and error-checking of data packets at the data link layer (Layer 2 of the OSI model).
Media Access Control (MAC) Address: Each network adapter has a unique MAC address, which is used to identify it on the network.
Packet Transmission and Reception: Network adapters transmit data onto the network and receive incoming data, allowing devices to communicate with each other.
Driver and Software Support: To function properly, network adapters require drivers and software that enable communication between the hardware and the operating system.
Installation: In most cases, network adapters are installed inside a computer as a separate hardware component, either as an expansion card or integrated into the motherboard. Wireless NICs can also be in the form of USB dongles that plug into a USB port.
Configuration: Network adapters often require configuration settings, such as IP addresses, subnet masks, and gateway addresses, to properly communicate on a network. These settings can be configured manually or obtained automatically via protocols like DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol).
Duplex Modes: Network adapters support different duplex modes, including full-duplex and half-duplex. Full-duplex allows simultaneous two-way communication, while half-duplex permits communication in one direction at a time.
Virtualization: In virtualized environments, virtual network adapters (virtual NICs) are created for virtual machines (VMs). These virtual adapters connect VMs to virtual networks, allowing them to communicate within the virtualized infrastructure.
Network Speed and Standards: Network adapters support various speeds and standards, such as Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps), and 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps). The specific speed depends on the hardware and the network infrastructure.
Circuit switching is a method of communication in which a dedicated communication path or circuit is established between two devices for the duration of their conversation.
This circuit remains active even if no actual data is being transmitted, resulting in continuous connection.
Traditional telephone networks are the classic example of circuit switching.
Once a connection is established, the devices can exchange data without the need for addressing or routing during the call.
This method guarantees constant bandwidth but can be inefficient when the circuit is tied up for the entire duration of the call, even if there are pauses in the conversation.
following key features:
Dedicated Circuit: When two parties want to communicate, a dedicated physical connection is established between them. This connection remains reserved exclusively for their use throughout the conversation.
Resource Reservation: Before communication begins, the network allocates resources, such as bandwidth and a dedicated communication path, to the established circuit. This resource reservation ensures a consistent and guaranteed quality of service for the entire duration of the communication.
Connection Establishment: Circuit switching involves a three-phase process: circuit establishment, data transfer, and circuit teardown. During the circuit establishment phase, the network sets up the connection, including determining the path through which data will flow.
Constant Bandwidth: Since the circuit is dedicated to the conversation, the bandwidth is constant and not shared with other users. This ensures predictable and steady data transfer rates, making circuit switching suitable for voice calls and real-time applications.
Example Usage: Traditional telephone networks, such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), rely heavily on circuit switching. When you make a phone call, a dedicated circuit is established between your phone and the recipient's phone for the duration of the call.
Inefficiency: Circuit switching is less efficient for data communication compared to packet switching because the dedicated circuit is reserved even when there is silence or no data transmission. This inefficiency makes it less suitable for data services like internet browsing.
Scalability Challenges: Circuit switching can be challenging to scale as the number of users and communication sessions grows. It requires significant infrastructure to maintain dedicated circuits for all potential connections.
Robustness: Circuit-switched networks are generally robust and provide high call quality since the dedicated circuit ensures a constant, reliable connection.
Message switching is a method of data communication where complete messages or data units are transmitted as a whole from the source to the destination. Unlike packet switching, which breaks data into smaller packets for transmission, message switching sends entire messages from one point to another. Here are some key characteristics of message switching:
Whole Message Transmission: In message switching, the entire message is sent as a single unit. This message could be a text message, a file, or any other data unit.
Store-and-Forward: Message switching typically involves a store-and-forward mechanism. The message is received at an intermediate node (message switch) and stored temporarily before being forwarded to the next hop. This intermediate storage allows for some degree of buffering and error handling.
Connectionless: Message switching is connectionless, meaning that there is no dedicated or established path between the sender and receiver before sending the message. Each message is handled individually and can take different routes to reach its destination.
Variable Delivery Times: Since messages can take different paths and may be temporarily stored at intermediate nodes, delivery times for messages in message switching networks can vary. Some messages may be delivered quickly, while others may experience delays.
Less Efficient: Message switching is generally less efficient than packet switching, especially when it comes to utilizing network resources. This is because it sends entire messages even if they are relatively small, leading to less efficient use of bandwidth.
Historical Significance: Message switching was one of the earliest forms of data communication used in telegraph and telex systems. It predates modern computer networking technologies like packet switching and was prevalent during the early days of long-distance communication.
Packet Switching, on the other hand, is a more efficient and flexible method of communication commonly used in modern computer networks, including the Internet.
Data is divided into smaller packets, each containing a portion of the data, together with source and destination addresses.
These packets are then individually routed through the network based on the current network conditions and available routes.
This allows for more efficient use of network resources, as different packets can take different routes and be interleaved over the same communication lines. Packet switching also permits multiple conversations (sessions) to share the same physical network infrastructure simultaneously.
Key characteristics of packet switching include:
Dividing Data: When data is sent across a network using packet switching, it is broken down into small packets. These packets are typically a few hundred bytes in size.
Routing: Each packet is treated independently and can take a different route to reach its destination. Routers and switches within the network make decisions about how to forward each packet based on its destination address.
Efficiency: Packet switching is efficient because it allows multiple devices to share a network's resources simultaneously. It avoids the need for dedicated communication paths between sender and receiver, as is the case in circuit switching.
Robustness: If a link or node in the network fails, packet-switched networks can often reroute packets through alternative paths, making them more resilient to network failures.
Scalability: Packet switching is highly scalable, making it suitable for networks of various sizes, from small local area networks (LANs) to global-scale networks like the internet.
Common Protocols: Common networking protocols that use packet switching include the Internet Protocol (IP) for the internet and Ethernet for LANs.
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