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A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally across the beam's axis (an element designed to carry a load pushing parallel to its axis would be a strut or column). Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending, as loads produce reaction forces at the beam's support points and internal bending moments, shear, stresses, strains, and deflections. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), equilibrium conditions, length, and material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, where the beams are horizontal and carry vertical loads. However, any structure may contain beams, such as automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems. Any structural element, in any orientation, that primarily resists loads applied laterally across the element's axis is a beam.

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Historically a beam is a squared timber, but may also be made of metal, stone, or a combination of wood and metal[1] such as a flitch beam. Beams primarily carry vertical gravitational forces, but they are also used to carry horizontal loads such as those due to earthquake or wind, or in tension to resist rafter thrust (tie beam) or compression (collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, then to adjacent structural compression members, and eventually to the ground. In light frame construction, joists may rest on beams.

In the beam equation, the variable I represents the second moment of area or moment of inertia: it is the sum, along the axis, of dAr2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis and dA is a small patch of area. It measures not only the total area of the beam section, but the square of each patch's distance from the axis. A larger value of I indicates a stiffer beam, more resistant to bending.

Loads on a beam induce internal compressive, tensile and shear stresses (assuming no torsion or axial loading). Typically, under gravity loads, the beam bends into a slightly circular arc, with its original length compressed at the top to form an arc of smaller radius, while correspondingly stretched at the bottom to enclose an arc of larger radius in tension. This is known as sagging; while a configuration with the top in tension, for example over a support, is known as hogging. The axis of the beam retaining its original length, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is under neither compression nor tension, and defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure).

Above the supports, the beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons. These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment, and, in turn, increases the moment-carrying capacity of the beam. Prestressed beams are commonly used on highway bridges.

Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment distribution method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness method.

Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a more efficient cross section for a beam is an I or H section which is typically seen in steel construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that most of the material is away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of the beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.

An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down looking at the profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H where it is less efficient. The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D is a box (a square shell); the most efficient shape for bending in any direction, however, is a cylindrical shell or tube. For unidirectional bending, the I or wide flange beam is superior.[citation needed]

A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure). The cross section of thin walled beams is made up from thin panels connected among themselves to create closed or open cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections include round, square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled beams exist because their bending stiffness per unit cross sectional area is much higher than that for solid cross sections such a rod or bar. In this way, stiff beams can be achieved with minimum weight. Thin walled beams are particularly useful when the material is a composite laminate. Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled beams was done by Librescu.

The torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its cross sectional shape. For open sections, such as I sections, warping deflections occur which, if restrained, greatly increase the torsional stiffness.[6]

I have two 5D Mark 3 camera bodies which I use to shoot weddings. At night's end, the lights are OUT and my camera cannot auto focus in such darkness or very low light, so I need the assist beam to help me out and turn on. My cameras are shooting in 'one shot' mode, and under the menu section AF, the AF assist-beam is enabled and 'on' yet still the red beam of light will not go on. What is happening here? The problem is doubled when I am trying to fire a flash either on or off camera, and because the auto-focus can't find anything to focus on (with no red assist beam to help) in such low light, the shutter will not work. I can override this but I'm still shooting in such low light, and my beam isn't going on to help. I haven't been able to find this exact issue on the message board--or folks say it resolved for them when they got out of AI servo and put their camera on One Shot mode, which I've already done. Thanks for help!!

Hi Mike, I am using a Yongnuo Digital speedlite YN600EX-RT flash. Is it a problem with my flash? I guess I am confused about where the red assist beam is emitted and controlled from--is it actually coming from my flash but controlled by my camera? Or emitted from the flash and controlled both by settings on my camera AND the flash?

I am using a Yongnuo Speedlite YN600-EX-RT that is at least 5 years old, maybe more (not sure) and I'm not sure how to enable the AF assist beam on the flash itself. Do you enable that through the flash directly, somehow, or via the camera it's attached to? Do you know what AF point I can't use to make sure the speedlite assist beam goes off?

Space exploration is hindered by the limitations of rocket equation. Indeed, only two space probes have left the heliosphere and entered the interstellar medium. It took Voyager 1 cruising at a record breaking velocity of 3.6 AU/year 35 years to reach the heliopause. Pellet-beam aims to transform the way deep space is explored by enabling fast transit missions to far away destinations. With the pellet-beam outer planets can be reached in less than a year, 100 AU in about 3 year and solar gravity lens at 500 AU in about 15 years. Importantly, unlike other concepts pellet beam allows propelling heavy spacecraft (~1 ton) which substantially increases the scope of possible missions.

In Phase I effort we will demonstrate feasibility of the proposed propulsion concept by performing detailed modelling of different subsystems of the proposed propulsion architecture, and by performing proof of concept experimental studies. We will also explore the utility of the pellet beam for fast transit interstellar probe missions.

Users can access the publicly available BEAM source code using this Github link: -UCB-STI/beam.

Please contact Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory staff with any questions or inquiries about applying BEAM to your region of interest.

With these motivations and the fact that there is difference between lifetime values obtain with cold neutron beams and confined ultracold neutrons, we are running another neutron lifetime measurement on the NG-C beamline focused on understanding systematic effects. A competitive beam-style experiment provides distinctly different systematics from all ultracold neutron bottle experiments. This new measurement should help to resolve the difference while improving the precision of tests of the SM.

In the beam technique, the lifetime is measured by counting the absolute number of protons within a fiducial volume while continuously monitoring the absolute neutron flux. We completed the first experiment in 2003, and the uncertainty in the result was dominated by systematic effects associated with the neutron counting. Since that time, the group has successfully refined the ability to measure absolute neutron fluence at the level of 0.06%, and with this improvement, neutron counting is no longer the limiting systematic effect. In 2013 we published an updated value of (887.7 +/- 2.2) s using the new neutron counting results. We are now working on a new iteration of the experiment to measure the lifetime with a focus on testing and accounting for possible systematic effects.

The general approach to determining the neutron lifetime from a beam of cold neutrons is the same as that employed in the previous measurement. Figure 1 illustrates the method. A beam of cold neutrons enters a segmented proton trap (shown in Figure 2). If a neutron decays, the proton is confined by a 4.6 T magnetic field and electrostatic potentials on both ends of the trap. Periodically, the upstream electrodes (referred to as the door) are lowered, and a ramp voltage is applied to the central electrodes to eject any proton from the trap. The proton follows the magnetic field line out of the direct beam and onto a silicon detector held at a high potential to accelerate and detect the proton. While that process repeats itself, the downstream neutron flux monitor continuously monitors the neutron beam. 2351a5e196