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Some constellations in the Western sky have been gone over time.
Two perspectives
Until 1922, the year astronomers agreed there was 88 constellations in the sky, the stars had been represented in several ways throughout centuries. In Western classic drawings, they were mentioned as being part of mythological patterns, which became the usual way to allude to them.
Many cartographers considered Claude Ptolemy's stars catalogue, Almagest from the middle I c. b.C., as the base for their works, a document including observations made from the Greek Mediterranean Sea. The cartographies showed the stars mostly as seen from Earth, although Albrecht Dürer's charts (1515), Peter Apian's astrolabe (1540) and Johannes Hevelius' atlas (1690) were exceptions, since they represented them as seen from space, like celestial globes do. Dürer's works were also distinctive since were the first ones displaying the Milky Way path, and even in charts seeming the current way to draw Western astrological birth charts: the Zodiac was placed around a rim (the central area as the celestial pole on the maps), in counter-clockwise orientation, and dividing the whole area into 30° segments.
Albrecht Dürer' septentrional chart. He included his own referals in the four corners. From top left and clockwise: Aratus from Sicyon, author of the astronomic poem Phaenomena; Ptolemy, author of the Almagest; al-Ṣūfī, Arabian astronomer author of The Book of Fixed Stars; and Marcus Manilius, Roman astrologer author of Astronomica.
Albrecht Dürer's meridional chart. In right corners, he wrote inscriptions. In the top left corner, it's the coat of arms of Salzburgue's Archbishop, to whom the charts were dedicated to. In the corner at the bottom, his own coat of arms is next to those of the charts' co-authors (Stab and Heinfogel). Dürer himself registered the positions from Europe, so the Southern chart includes many fewer references.
Monoceros the unicorn was created by Petrus Plancius in the XVI c., to South Canis Minor and North Canis Major, between Gemini and Cancer. The representation belongs to Johannes Hevelius (1690), who drew from the space perspective, in which the zodiacal signs progress counterclockwise, such as they're included in a birth chart. All of his plates were made from this perspective, firstly considering the planets' translational motion around the Sun (except the Southern planisphere).
Monoceros represented by John Flamsteed (1725). From the terrestrial perspective, the zodiacal signs follow a regressive ordering compared to the previous one, due to the planetary clockwise rotation around its axis, and such as lunar karma is read in a birth chart. Johannes Honter from Transylvania was the first one to include this perspective in maps, in the XVI c. However, the plates were still introduced in atlases as visualized from the space point of view.
Changes in mapping
The catalogues were based on registries made from different locations on Earth, like the Mediterranean Sea, Greenwich (England), Shīrāz (ancient Persia in Iran), Madagascar and Cape Town (Africa), Sumatra (Asia) and Saint Helene islands (Atlantic Ocean). The astronomers didn't just updated the positions but also included more stars, which made them introduce new constellations to include them. However, not all of the astronomers approved those ones created by others, and sometimes they didn't draw them in their atlases.
With or without recognition, the Earth's axis motion always changes the view of positions, which is better noticed as centuries pass by since one observation until the next one. So it seems some stars are "getting closer to" or "moving away from" each other, a seeming change making cartographers relocate them in other constellation, which made disappear some patterns whereas new ones were created. Another reason to change their location was to avoid overlaps as other stars were added.
Mythological drawings were the main reference although some cartographies progressively included more elements to identify stars with greater accuracy. For example, there were mentioned before Dürer's radial lines at 30° intervals, whereas Johann Bayer was the one who assigned Greek letters to stars in the XVII c. to indicate their brightness, and illustrated them on grid plates with calibrated margins to specify the degrees. During the following century, Alexander Ruelle linked them with lines. In the XIX c., Johann E. Bode registered by the naked eye more than 17,000 stars in 100 constellations, and also drew soft boundary lines between them. Finally, by the end of the same century, the Belgian Eugène Delporte traced zigzag boundaries for making the stars stay inside of the constellation they were assigned to, according to declinations and their passage across the meridians, leaving definitely behind mythical patterns as references, and now setting well-defined areas.
Lost constellations
From ancient mythological narrations to current mappings based on brightness and mathematical calculations of exact positions, many centuries have passed by and many efforts have been made to take notes, transmit and preserve catalogues and representations. This article displays some of those ones that have remained on the way, not being part anymore of the now recognized 88 constellations. They are 17 constellations introduced here in the order they were created, between the XVII and XIX centuries, related to myths and also to objects, animals and famous people by those times.
ARGO NAVIS, by Johann Bayer (in Uranometria, 1603)
By Ptolomeo (150 b.C.). It was the name of Jason's ship in the epic journey towards the Black Sea in search of the golden fleece. The oak beam in the prow was an oracle (surrounded by a bank of midst in Bayer's drawing). One of the greater obstacles to face were the Clashing Rocks, which slid and closed the entrance to the Sea to anything trying to pass through. Argo Navis was the first ship in succeeding. After the adventure, the rocks remained apart.
ANTINOUS, by Johann Elert Bode (in Uranographia, chart IX, 1801)
By Ptolomeo (150 b.C.). He was the Turkish lover of the Roman emperor Adrian in the I c. b.C. An oracle had forecasted the emperor would be saved by sacrificing what he loved the most. Antinous was found drowned in the Nyle river, and was later considered as a god with his own constellation to South Aquila the eagle. Bode portrayed him as being grabbed by the claws of the animal, although Ptolemy had specifically mentioned the bird should be looked at from below.
TIGRIS, by Jacob Bartsch (in Usus Astronomicus Planisphaerii Stellati, 1624)
By Petrus Plancius (XVI c.). It represented Tigris river (Iraq) according to registries from Madagascar island (approximately at 23° S). It flowed from the neck of Pegasus the winged horse (top left) and then between Cygnus the swan and Aquila, until Ophiuchus the serpent bearer (right corner at the bottom).
MUSCA, by Johannes Hevelius (in Firmamentum Sobiescianum, Fig. AA, 1690)
By Petrus Plancius (XVI c.). Initially called Apes, it was between Aries the ram and Medusa's head in Perseus (top area). In the XVII c., Jacob Bartsch called it Vespa and Johannes Hevelius changed the name to a fly and called it Musca. During the same century, some of the stars were also part of Lilium, although that pattern doesn't exist anymore. Later, it was called Musca Borealis to set a difference from the homologous Southern constellation (the one that still remains).
ROBUR CAROLINUM, by Johann Elert Bode (in Uranographia, chart XX, 1801)
By Edmund Halley (XVII c.). It represented the oak tree inside of which king Charles II of England hid after he was defeated by Cromwell in Worcester battle. It included stars from Argo Navis' oak although most of the astronomers didn't recognise it. Later, Boded did include it in his maps although called it Robur Caroli II. It can be appreciated in the right middle area in the drawing, crossing the ship in a transverse vertical section, with roots in Southwestern Chamaleon and branches extended towards the waters.
CERBERUS, by Johannes Hevelius (in Firmamentum Sobiescianum, Fig. H, 1690)
By Johannes Hevelius (XVII c.). It was the mythical three-snake-headed dog at the gates of Hades, the realm of death. One of the 12 challenges Hercules had to face was capturing the dog and taking it to a luminous surface. Previously, Bayer had portrayed the heroe holding an apple-tree in his hand although Hevelius changed it to Cerberus. In the following century, John Senex combined both drawings (Ramus Cerberus), whereas John Flamsteed straightly removed them, and his charts included Hercules just grasping thin air. Displayed here is Hevelius's drawing from the space perspective.
SCEPTRUM BRANDENBURGICUM, by Gottfried Kirch (in Acta Eruditorum newspaper, 1688)
By Gottfried Kirch (XVII c.). It was created to honor Frederic III of Brandenburg (Prussia). North-South aligned stars composed a ceremony sceptre positioned at the foot of Orion the hunter, in one of Eridanus river meanders. The newspaper where it was introduced especially remarked Rigel star in Orion.
MONS MAENALUS, by Johannes Hevelius (in Firmamentum Sobiescianum, Fig. F, 1690)
By Johannes Hevelius (XVII c.). It included stars from Boötes, the constellation representing the mythical Arcas, son of Callisto and grandson of the king of Arcadia (central Peloponnesus). Maenalus might have been Callisto's brother or son of Arcas. With a mount at the feet of the last character, then he stepped onto his uncle or his own son. The mount was a sacred place to Pan, and Diana's favorite zone (the hunter goddess).
LE RÉENE, by Alexander Jamieson (in Celestial Atlas, panel II, 1822)
By Pièrre-Charles Le Monnier (XVIII c.). A reindeer represented the course of Halley comet in 1742, between Camelopardalis the giraffe and Cepheus the king (beyond the top border). An expedition to Lapland had inspired the reindeer pattern. In Jamieson's drawing, the tail pointed to the North Pole and the head almost touched Custos Messium's arm (a constellation created 32 years later by Lalande). In some maps, it was called Tarandus, like the animal's scientific name (Rangifer tarandus).
NOCTUA, by Alexander Jamieson (in Celestial Atlas, panel XXVII, 1822)
By Charles Le Monnier (XVIII c.). The astronomer described it as "a bird from India and Philipines", referring to a flightless Asian bird. But his drawing seemed like a thrush, so during the next century it was called Turdus solitarius (Bode), Mockingbird (Thomas Young) and Noctua (Jamieson). Jamieson's drawing was quite different from the first representations: it looks like an owl, similar to those in Egyptian hieroglyphs, showing one side of its body and facing the watcher. The bird was on Hydra's tail, the aquatic serpent, with the head between Libra the scale and South Virgo the virgin.
CUSTOS MESSIUM, by Alexander Jamieson (in Celestial Atlas, panel II, 1822)
By Joseph Jérôme de Lalande (XVIII c.). It referred to his countryman, Charles Messier, the comet hunter, shown in the central vertical pattern in the drawing, holding a shepherd stick and pointing with his right hand to Cassiopea's foot, the seated lady. The constellation was located where the comet of 1774 was first seen at, between Le Réene the reindeer on the left and Cassiopea. Thomas Young called it The Vineyard Keeper.
LE MURAL, by Alexander Jamieson (in Celestial Atlas, panel II, 1822)
By Joseph Jérôme de Lalande (XVIII c.). The name was related to the Quarantides, the meteors shower visible in January. It was located to North Boötes, to South Draco's body, the dragon, and next to Hercules' bowed leg. Bode changed the name to Latin language, Quadrans Muralis.
TAURUS PONIATOVII, by Johann Elert Bode (in Uranographia, chart IX, 1801)
By Martin Poczobut (XVIII c.). It honored Stanisław August Poniatowski, king of Polony and Lithuania, mentor of arts and sciences, whose coat of arms included a bull. The constellation was palced between Aquila and Ophiuchus, overlapping the tail of Serpens. The V-shape stars in the face of the central bull had been part of the extinct Tigris.
HONOUR, by Alexander Jamieson (in Celestial Atlas, panel III, 1822)
By Johann Elert Bode (XVIII c.). Invented in 1786, a year after the death of Frederic The Great, king of Prussia, who was remembered as a hero, sage and peacemaker. It was a ceremonial sword surrounded by laurel leaves, a feather and a crown in the top area. It lay next to Andromeda's extended arm, the chained woman, and Cepheus the king (top right). Bode called it Honour and other names were Honores Friderici and Frederici Honores, although it's displayed here as Jamieson did, as Gloria Frederici.
TUBUS HERSCHELLI, by Maximilian Hell (in Monumenta, Aere Perenniora, Inter Astra Ponenda, 1789)
By Maximilian Hell (XVIII c.). They were two constellations: a telescope (Major) and a reflector (Minor) represented the intruments William Herschel used when discovering Uranus (1781). They were drawn where the planet had been discovered: the reflector was between Orion and the head of Taurus the bull, and the telescope was just above the arrow held by Castor in Gemini. Later, Bode gathered them in a single constellation, called it Telescopium Herschelii and placed it where the telescope (although drawn with the reflector's dimensions).
GLOBUS AEROSTATICUS, by Johann Elert Bode (in Uranographia, chart XVI, 1801)
By Johann Elert Bode (XIX c.). For honoring the invention of the Montgolfier brothers that had reached the skies to South Capricorn the goat-fish in the 1780's. In the chart, the globe rises up with an empty basket, between the left foot of Aquarius the water-bearer and Capricorn, with Piscis Notius' tail on the left and Microscopium on the right. The constellation was introduced by Bode although Lalande have had suggested so.
OFFICINA TYPOGRAPHICA, by Johann Elert Bode (in Uranographia, chart XVIII, 1801)
By Johann Elert Bode (XIX c.). Again, another inspiration coming from Lalande and displayed in a chart by Bode, this time to honor another invention too: Gütenberg's printing press created 350 years before. It was located just below the legs of Monoceros the unicorn, to North Argo Navis' prow and to West Canis Major the bigger dog.
The 88 constellations
An online document displays the names of the constellations currently recognized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). The list enumerates them in a decreasing order according to the celestial area they take, next to the name of the inventor, some spatial references to locate them in the sky, and the brightest stars (magnitude lower than 3). The following planispheres of arbitrary colors show the areas they take and the stars position.
Related links
Atlases. The original works of cartographers mentioned in this article are available as digitilized documents in online public libraries. The viewers include descriptions of books (in Latin language) and high quality zoom viewing, with option for free downloading. Links at the bottom of each drawing. Some of the images are courtesy of The Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology.
Ian Ridpath's website. A website to take a path to the history of catalogues and atlases, referring to authors, origins and the way the charts were made. Of an easy and quick reading, it includes most of the links found in this article, along with the mythological stories related to constellations. It also mentions Chinese constellations, with links to deepen more into them.
The Book of Fixed Stars. The Arabian astronomer Ἁbd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī (903–986) added over 40 stars to Ptolemy's Almagest from the observatory of Shīrāz Persian city (29.6°N, Iran). His book Kitāb Ṣuwar al-kawākib (al-thābitah) also updated the locations mentioned by the Greek one although he didn't take new notes but made calculations based on the precession of the equinoxes. He drew each constellation twice, with no coordinates, from both terrestrial and space perspectives.
The visualization of perspective systems and iconology in Dürer’s cartographic works: an in-depth analysis using multiple methodological approaches. PhD. Filosophy thesis by Adèle Lorraine Wörz (2006) in Oregon University. It describes different methodologies for a critical appreciation of the history of cartography as well as the arts history. Next, it reviews Dürer's works by looking for meanings, conditionings and different kinds of subjective expressions at the time of considering spatial relations, perspectives, projections and iconology in his artworks. The document is of general interest and publicly available online for downloading (.pdf).
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