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In the unrest of the Sengoku period, jizamurai families, that is, elite peasant-warriors, in Iga Province and the adjacent Kka District formed ikki - "revolts" or "leagues" - as a means of self-defense. They became known for their military activities in the nearby regions and sold their services as mercenaries and spies. It is from these areas that much of the knowledge regarding the ninja is drawn. Following the unification of Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate in the 17th century, the ninja faded into obscurity.[6] A number of shinobi manuals, often based on Chinese military philosophy, were written in the 17th and 18th centuries, most notably the Bansenshkai (1676).[7]

Historically, the word ninja was not in common use, and a variety of regional colloquialisms evolved to describe what would later be dubbed ninja. Along with shinobi, these include monomi ("one who sees"), nokizaru ("macaque on the roof"), rappa ("ruffian"), kusa ("grass") and Iga-mono ("one from Iga").[6] In historical documents, shinobi is almost always used.

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Despite many popular folktales, historical accounts of the ninja are scarce. Historian Stephen Turnbull asserts that the ninja were mostly recruited from the lower class, and therefore little literary interest was taken in them.[15] The social origin of the ninja is seen as the reason they agree to operate in secret, trading their service for money without honor and glory.[16] The scarcity of historical accounts is also demonstrated in war epics such as The Tale of Hgen (Hgen Monogatari) and The Tale of the Heike (Heike Monogatari), which focus mainly on the aristocratic samurai, whose deeds were apparently more appealing to the audience.[12]

However, some ninjutsu books described specifically what tactics ninja should use to fight, and the scenarios a ninja might find themselves can be deduced from those tactics. For example, in the manuscript of volume 2 of Kanrin Seiy () which is the original book of Bansenshkai (), there are 48 points of ninja's fighting techniques, such as how to make makibishi from bamboo, how to make footwear that makes no sound, fighting techniques when surrounded by many enemies, precautions when using swords at night, how to listen to small sounds, kuji-kiri that prevents guard dogs from barking, and so on.[18][19]

The title ninja has sometimes been attributed retrospectively to the semi-legendary 2nd-century prince Yamato Takeru.[20] In the Kojiki, the young Yamato Takeru disguised himself as a charming maiden and assassinated two chiefs of the Kumaso people.[21] However, these records take place at a very early stage of Japanese history, and they are unlikely to be connected to the shinobi of later accounts. The first recorded use of espionage was under the employment of Prince Shtoku in the 6th century.[22] Such tactics were considered unsavory even in early times, when, according to the 10th-century Shmonki, the boy spy Hasetsukabe no Koharumaru was killed for spying against the insurgent Taira no Masakado.[23] Later, the 14th-century war chronicle Taiheiki contained many references to shinobi[20] and credited the destruction of a castle by fire to an unnamed but "highly skilled shinobi".[24]

It was not until the 15th century that spies were specially trained for their purpose.[15] It was around this time that the word shinobi appeared to define and clearly identify ninja as a secretive group of agents. Evidence for this can be seen in historical documents, which began to refer to stealthy soldiers as shinobi during the Sengoku period.[25] Later manuals regarding espionage are often grounded in Chinese military strategy, quoting works such as The Art of War by Sun Tzu.[26]

The ninja emerged as mercenaries in the 15th century, where they were recruited as spies, raiders, arsonists and even terrorists. Amongst the samurai, a sense of ritual and decorum was observed, where one was expected to fight or duel openly. Combined with the unrest of the Sengoku period, these factors created a demand for men willing to commit deeds considered disreputable for conventional warriors.[22][2] By the Sengoku period, the shinobi had several roles, including spy (kanch), scout (teisatsu), surprise attacker (kishu), and agitator (konran).[25] The ninja families were organized into larger guilds, each with their own territories.[27] A system of rank existed. A jnin ("upper person") was the highest rank, representing the group and hiring out mercenaries. This is followed by the chnin ("middle person"), assistants to the jnin. At the bottom was the genin ("lower person"), field agents drawn from the lower class and assigned to carry out actual missions.[28]

The Iga and Kga "clans" were jizamurai families living in the province of Iga (modern Mie Prefecture) and the adjacent region of Kka (later written as Kga), named after a village in what is now Shiga Prefecture. From these regions, villages devoted to the training of ninja first appeared.[29] The remoteness and inaccessibility of the surrounding mountains in Iga may have had a role in the ninja's secretive development.[28] Historical documents regarding the ninja's origins in these mountainous regions are considered generally correct.[30] The chronicle Go Kagami Furoku writes, of the two clans' origins:

A distinction is to be made between the ninja from these areas, and commoners or samurai hired as spies or mercenaries. Unlike their counterparts, the Iga and Kga clans were professionals, specifically trained for their roles.[25] These professional ninja were actively hired by daimys between 1485 and 1581.[25] Specifically, the Iga professionals were sought after for their skill at siege warfare, or "shirotori", which included night attacks and ambush.[32] By the 1460s, the leading families in the regions had established de facto independence from their shugo. The Kka ikki persisted until 1574, when it was forced to become a vassal of Oda Nobunaga. The Iga ikki continued until 1581, when Nobunaga invaded Iga Province and wiped out the organized clans.[33] Survivors were forced to flee, some to the mountains of Kii, but others arrived before Tokugawa Ieyasu, where they were well treated.[34] Some former Iga clan members, including Hattori Hanz, would later serve as Tokugawa's bodyguards.[35] Prior to the conquest of Kka in 1574, the two confederacies worked in alliance together from at least 1487.

Following the Battle of Okehazama in 1560, Tokugawa employed a group of eighty Kga ninja, led by Tomo Sukesada. They were tasked to raid an outpost of the Imagawa clan. The account of this assault is given in the Mikawa Go Fudoki, where it was written that Kga ninja infiltrated the castle, set fire to its towers, and killed the castellan along with two hundred of the garrison.[36] The Kga ninja are said to have played a role in the later Battle of Sekigahara (1600), where several hundred Kga assisted soldiers under Torii Mototada in the defence of Fushimi Castle.[37] After Tokugawa's victory at Sekigahara, the Iga acted as guards for the inner compounds of Edo Castle, while the Kga acted as a police force and assisted in guarding the outer gate.[35] In 1614, the initial "winter campaign" at the Siege of Osaka saw the ninja in use once again. Miura Yoemon, a ninja in Tokugawa's service, recruited shinobi from the Iga region, and sent 10 ninja into Osaka Castle in an effort to foster antagonism between enemy commanders.[38] During the later "summer campaign", these hired ninja fought alongside regular troops at the Battle of Tennji.[38]

After the Shimabara Rebellion, there were almost no major wars or battles until the bakumatsu era. To earn a living, ninja had to be employed by the governments of their Han (domain), or change their profession. Many lords still hired ninja, not for battle but as bodyguards or spies. Their duties included spying on other domains, guarding the daimy, and fire patrol.[47] A few domains like Tsu, Hirosaki and Saga continued to employ their own ninja into the bakumatsu era, although their precise numbers are unknown.[48][49]

Many former ninja were employed as security guards by the Tokugawa shogunate, though the role of espionage was transferred to newly created organizations like the onmitsu and the oniwaban.[50] Others used their ninjutsu knowledge to become doctors, medicine sellers, merchants, martial artists, and fireworks manufacturers.[51] Some unemployed ninja were reduced to banditry, such as Fma Kotar and Ishikawa Goemon.[52]

Many ubiquitous stereotypes about ninja were developed within Edo theatre. These include their black clothing, which was supposed to imitate the outfits worn by kuroko, stagehands meant to be ignored by the audience; and their use of shuriken, which was meant to contrast with the use of swords by onstage samurai. In kabuki theatre, ninja were "dishonorable and often sorcerous counterparts" to samurai, and possessed "almost, if not outright, magical means of camouflage."[14]

Between 1960 and 2010 artifacts dating to the Siege of Odawara (1590) were uncovered which experts say are ninja weapons.[56] Ninja were spies and saboteurs and likely participated in the siege.[56] The Hojo clan failed to save the castle from Toyotomi Hideyoshi forces.[56] The uncovered flat throwing stones are likely predecessors of the shuriken.[56] The clay caltrops preceded makibishi caltrops.[56] Archeologist Iwata Akihiro of Saitama Prefectural Museum of History and Folklore said the flat throwing stones "were used to stop the movement of the enemy who was going to attack [a soldier] at any moment, and while the enemy freezed the soldier escaped,".[56] The clay caltrops could "stop the movement of the enemy who invaded the castle," These weapons were hastily constructed yet effective and used by a "battle group which can move into action as ninjas".[56] e24fc04721