Duncker coined the term functional fixedness for describing the difficulties in visual perception and in problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function which has to be changed for making the correct perception or for finding the solution to the problem.[2]
Karl Duncker On Problem Solving Pdf 20
The candle problem or candle task, also known as Duncker's candle problem, is a cognitive performance test, measuring the influence of functional fixedness on a participant's problem solving capabilities. The test was created by Gestalt psychologist Karl Duncker[1] and published by him in 1935.[2] Duncker originally presented this test in his thesis on problem-solving tasks at Clark University.[3]
Another way to explain the higher levels of failure during the high-drive condition is that the process of turning the task into a competition for limited resources can create mild levels of stress in the subject, which can lead to a sympathetic nervous system response known as fight-or-flight. This stress response effectively shuts down the creative thinking and problem solving areas of the brain in the prefrontal cortex.
Researchers have found that functional fixedness is a bias that develops and strengthens as we age. When studying functional fixedness in children, a study done at the University of Essex found that 5-year-old children showed no initial signs of the bias in early development when problem-solving. Meanwhile, as early as the age of 7, children tended to treat objects as they were meant to be used, already developing the bias.2 Younger participants present initial immunity to the bias due to their initial lack of problem-solving experience, allowing them to be more creative in their solutions.1
Functional fixedness has also proven to develop more as individuals gain more experience with problem-solving. Ironically, the more practice we have with identifying solutions to a problem, the more difficult it is to identify alternative or more creative solutions.3 Though individuals may be aware that their traditional method of solving a problem may be over-used and ineffective, they are typically still tempted to use the same problem-solving approach, due to their familiarity with it.
Individuals who are aware of functional fixedness can work towards avoiding bias and improving their problem-solving abilities. By consciously working to think innovatively, and better tackle problems in their professional and personal lives, they can strive towards unique and innovative solutions.
The researchers found that when participants given the abstracted challenge identified relevant but distant domains to aid in their problem-solving. The areas of comparison included landscaping, carpentry, Japanese aesthetics, and contortionism. Participants who were able to gain inspiration from these distant domains found the most novel and practical solutions to the design problem. The study proves that when preventing functional fixedness, and promoting creativity, the best solutions are developed.4
Functional fixedness occurs due to strong pre-conceived notions that people develop in regards to objects and how they must solve challenges using those objects. These preconceived notions typically develop as we age, and as we gain experience in problem-solving.
Duncker coined the term functional fixedness in visual perception and problem solving. This describes the difficulties arising from a part of a problem which normally has a fixed function. In the problem, the fixed function must be changed to reach the perception or solution.[1]
Embodied cognitive can be understood that cognition is influenced by the environment and the body, including its potential actions (Adam and Galinsky, 2012; Goldinger et al., 2016). Embodied effect refers to changes in cognition, attitude, social perception, emotion, and others related to the tasks involved when experience or simulate the movement or state of body, and this kind of functional dependence theory is embodied theory (Qiu-Ping et al., 2011; Horchak et al., 2014). According to embodied theory, bodied behavior and states of the body could change cognitive status (Wilson and Sabrina, 2013). The insight experience is a special experience in the process of insight problem solving, and it existed in the whole process of insight problem solving (Shen et al., 2015). Shen et al. (2018b) showed that insight experience was a complex, multidimensional construction with cognitive, affective, and embodied characteristics. Some researches supported that insight problem solving or insight experience is embodied (Leung et al., 2012; Jarman, 2014). And some studies found that gestures or speech could help to understand knowledge and solve problems. The information of problem would lead into mental representation by gestures or speech, then promote thinking and problem solving (Broaders et al., 2007; Cook et al., 2008; Cook and Tanenhaus, 2009; Beilock and Goldin-Meadow, 2010; Cook et al., 2010; Chu and Kita, 2011). Chu and Kita (2011) used mental rotation task and origami task to investigate whether the gesture can improve visual space problem solving, and the results showed that the group allowed to use gestures performed better in task than that not allowed to use gestures, which indicates that gestures not only reflect the process of thinking, but also affect it and then promote problem solving.
In addition, it was still controversial whether an individual can realize the process of insight problem solving. Most research found that the process of insight problem solving is implicit, and individuals do not realize the hints of problem solving (Grant and Spivey, 2003; Ollinger et al., 2013; Riffert, 2013; Branchini et al., 2016). Ollinger et al. (2013) on eight-coin problem found that implicit use the third dimension to find the solution. Conversely, some research found individuals are aware of the hints or trains (Dow and Mayer, 2004; Patrick and Ahmed, 2014). It may be related to feature of the problem hints or trains. Therefore, we intended to explore whether individuals realize the connection between embodied guidance and problem solving in this study, and it is inferred that the process of insight problem solving is implicit or explicit.
The Chi-square test showed that there was a significant difference in response accuracy: χ(2)2 = 6.575, p = 0.037. There was a marginal significant difference in the response accuracy in the prototypical guidance and the non-prototypical guidance condition: χ(1)2 = 3.313, p = 0.069. There was a significant difference in the response accuracy in the prototypical guidance and the non-guidance condition, χ(1)2 = 4.262, p = 0.039. There was no significant difference in the response accuracy in the prototypical guidance and non-prototypical guidance condition, χ(1)2 = 0.302, p = 0.583. It indicated that the prototypical cue had heuristic effect on the insight problem solving.
Analogical thinking is what we do when we use information from one domain (the source or analogy) to help solve a problem in another domain (the target). Experts often use analogies during the process of problem solving, and analogies have been involved in numerous scientific discoveries. However, studies of novice problem solvers show that they often have difficulty in recognising that one problem can be used to solve another. A problem that has been studied by several researchers is Duncker's (1945) radiation problem. In this problem, a doctor has a patient with a malignant tumour. The patient cannot be operated upon, but the doctor can use a particular type of ray to destroy the tumour. However, the ray will also destroy healthy tissue. At a lower intensity the rays would not damage the healthy tissue but would also not destroy the tumour. What can be done to destroy the tumour?
Reading this story led to a slightly higher, though not much higher, proportion of people thinking of the convergence solution - about 30%. When given a hint that the story might be of use in solving the radiation problem, but without making explicit reference to a possible analogy, then the solution rate was 92%. Solutions were also facilitated by asking participants to read two, rather than just one, problem analogues.
The work of Karl Duncker has recently been rediscovered. In particular, cognitive psychologists have praised Duncker's 1945 monograph on problem solving and thinking, viewing it as a seminal contribution that is directly relevant to current work in the field. Newell observed that the third section, on functional fixedness, has generated the most attention among psychologists. Dunckets work on pain, the effect of past experience on the apparent taste of chocolate, and apparent motions are not instances of muddy speculation or mystical vagueness. He is recognized today for his creative work in problem solving, cognitive psychology, and the psychology of the perception of apparent movement, and deserves to be recognized as well for his work on pain, the role of past experience in perception, systematic psychology, phenomenology, and motivation. In the German system, aspiring academics were required to produce a second major work after the doctoral dissertation, the habilitation thesis.
Karl Duncker was a psychologist most known for his works on problem-solving. One of his most famous problems is, arguably, the candlestick problem. This problem has been used many times to investigate creativity, problem-solving, and functional fixedness.
I wrote previously about some of the issues with pay for individual performance ranging from decreased collaboration, to higher instances of depression, to reduced organizational productivity, to the high costs of administration. Here I want to focus more specifically on incentives and their effectiveness in driving problem-solving behaviors.
We can also extend this to corporate bonus plans that carry individual components. Individual metrics such as delivering projects, billing hours, achievement of milestones, or even voluntary turnover, are all essentially linking incentives with solving problems. Enlightened by Glucksberg, we now know that doing so may inadvertently work against their performance.
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