Penny is also the informal name of the cent unit of account in Canada, although one-cent coins were removed from circulation in 2012.[1] Similarly, Australian one-cent coins were withdrawn from circulation in 1992 and New Zealand one-cent coins were demonetised in 1990.
The name penny is also used in reference to various historical currencies, also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier and the German pfennig. It may also be informally used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin, such as the euro cent or Chinese fen.
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From the 16th century, the regular plural pennies fell out of use in England, when referring to a sum of money (e.g. "That costs tenpence."), but continued to be used to refer to more than one penny coin ("Here you are, a sixpence and four pennies."). It remains common in Scottish English, and is standard for all senses in American English,[3] where, however, the informal "penny" is typically only used of the coins in any case, values being expressed in "cents".[5] The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York State.[6]
In Britain, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence were often written, and spoken as a single word, as twopence or tuppence, threepence or thruppence, etc. (Other values were usually expressed in terms of shillings and pence or written as two words, which might or might not be hyphenated.) Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, as a sixpence. Thus, "a threepence" (but more usually "a threepenny bit") would be a single coin of that value whereas "three pence" would be its value, and "three pennies" would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as sixpence-farthing, and such constructions were also treated as single nouns. Adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as sixpenny.[3]
The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin denarius. It followed the amount, e.g. "11d". It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period. From this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as "p".[3] In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol tag_hash_107. Elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c.
The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, and the Roman denarius. Forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden.[citation needed] The use of Roman currency in Britain, seems to have fallen off after the Roman withdrawal and subsequent Saxon invasions.
The earliest halfpenny and farthing (d.) found date from the reign of Henry III. The need for small change was also sometimes met by simply cutting a full penny into halves or quarters. In 1527, Henry VIII abolished the Tower pound of 5400 grains, replacing it with the Troy pound of 5760 grains (making a penny 5760/240 = 24 grains) and establishing a new pennyweight of 1.56 grams, although, confusingly, the penny coin by then weighed about 8 grains, and had never weighed as much as this 24 grains. The last silver pence for general circulation were minted during the reign of Charles II around 1660. Since then, they have only been coined for issue as Maundy money, royal alms given to the elderly on Maundy Thursday.
Throughout the 18th century, the British government did not mint pennies for general circulation and the bullion value of the existing silver pennies caused them to be withdrawn from circulation. Merchants and mining companies, such as Anglesey's Parys Mining Co., began to issue their own copper tokens to fill the need for small change.[20] Finally, amid the Napoleonic Wars, the government authorized Matthew Boulton to mint copper pennies and twopences at Soho Mint in Birmingham in 1797.[21] Typically, 1 lb. of copper produced 24 pennies. In 1860, the copper penny was replaced with a bronze one (95% copper, 4% tin, 1% zinc). Each pound of bronze was coined into 48 pennies.[22]
The United States' cent, popularly known as the "penny" since the early 19th century,[6] began with the unpopular copper chain cent in 1793.[23] Abraham Lincoln was the first historical figure to appear on a U.S. coin when he was portrayed on the one-cent coin to commemorate his 100th birthday.[24]
Handling and counting penny coins entail transaction costs that may be higher than a penny. It has been claimed that, for micropayments, the mental arithmetic costs more than the penny. Changes in the market prices of metals, combined with currency inflation, have caused the metal value of penny coins to exceed their face value.[28][29]
Australia and New Zealand adopted 5 and 10, respectively, as their lowest coin denomination,[30] followed by Canada, which adopted 5 as its lowest denomination in 2012.[31] Several nations have stopped minting equivalent value coins, and efforts have been made to end the routine use of pennies in several countries.[32] In the UK, since 1992, one- and two-penny coins have been made from copper-plated steel (making them magnetic) instead of bronze.
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