IMPERIAL CHINA: 

Imperial Government, Meritocracy, and Inventions

UNIT SUMMARY: 

From the empires of Africa we will travel to the far east to study Chinese Civilization. In 6th grade you touched upon early Chinese culture and its development along the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. You also looked at the important religions of Buddhism and Confucianism that have had a huge impact on China and its development. 

Chinese civilization was often far ahead of other civilizations around the world when it came to their ability to create new solutions to old problems. Whether is it figuring out how to find direction or navigate a river, the ingenuity of the Chinese people has been marveled at throughout the centuries. They too have had their difficulties with corrupt governments and invading armies, but for over 4000 years Chinese culture has found a way to continue and make it through these times. Their effect on neighboring countries like Korea and Japan is huge and as the years have passed, this influence has spread throughout the world. This year we will continue our studies by looking at what happened to China after the Han Dynasty, the impact of Confucian thought in Chinese government, and the many achievements Chinese civilization accomplished.  

During this unit you will focus on four different aspects of Imperial China and use the information you gather to help prepare for the unit assessments at the end. Our focus will include:

• Explaining the split of China after the Han Dynasty and reunification by the Tang Dynasty.

• Understanding the spread of Buddhism into China and its impact. 

• Describing how Confucian philosophies were applied to government during the Song and Mongol periods.

• Recognizing various Chinese inventions, their use, and their impact on the world.

Introduction

The Political Development of Imperial China

Welcome to imperial China. Historians divide Chinese history into periods ruled by dynasties, or ruling families. You will learn about China's political development under several dynasties from 220 to 1644 C.E.

China was first unified under an emperor in the 3rd century B.C.E. From the beginning, emperors needed help to rule. Emperor Han Wu Di, for example, once sent out this announcement:

Heroes Wanted! A Proclamation

Exceptional work demands exceptional men . . . We therefore command the various district officials to search for men of brilliant and exceptional talents, to be our generals, our ministers, and our envoys to distant states.

Over time, Chinese emperors tried several methods of finding qualified people to administer their government. One method was to rely on the class of wealthy families. Emperors like Han Wu Di, however, preferred to choose officials for their merit, or worth. During the Han dynasty, candidates for government jobs had to prove their knowledge and ability by passing strict tests. As a result, a class of scholar-officials evolved. Under later emperors, this system developed into a rule by officials of proven merit.

In the 13th century C.E., a nomadic people called the Mongols built a great empire in Asia. Toward the end of the century, the Mongols conquered China. Under Mongol emperors, government officials in China were foreigners. 

The Government of Imperial China

In 221 B.C.E., Prince Zheng (JUNG), the head of the state of Qin (CHIN), became the first Chinese ruler to claim the title of emperor, adopting the name Qin Shi Huangdi (chin SHEE hwahng-dee), which means “First Emperor of Qin.” From that time on, China usually had an imperial form of government headed by an emperor or, sometimes, an empress.

China's Imperial Dynasties 

Chinese emperors named a relative, often a son, to become emperor after their deaths. In this way, they established a dynasty, or line of rulers from the same family.

From ancient times, Chinese rulers based their right to govern on the Mandate of Heaven, the idea that Heaven had chosen a particular dynasty to rule. The Chinese believed that Heaven supported the dynasty throughout the emperor's reign, as long as the emperor ruled well. Natural disasters such as floods, famines, plagues, and earthquakes were interpreted as signs that Heaven was displeased. If an emperor ruled poorly and lost the Mandate of Heaven, the people could overthrow him.

This table lists the imperial dynasties that ruled China between 221 B.C.E. and 1644 C.E. Each of these dynasties brought about change for the people of medieval China.

China's Breakup and Reunification 

The Han dynasty held power in ancient China for more than 400 years and ushered in a golden age of expansion and prosperity. In 220 C.E., however, the Han rulers lost their grip on power, resulting in a long period of disunity and conflict. This period ended when the Sui and Tang dynasties reunified China.

What happened to bring about the end of Han rule? Like earlier emperors, the Han governed China with the help of a large bureaucracy of government officials. As long as the bureaucracy was skilled, honest, and hardworking, China prospered. By 220, however, corrupt, or dishonest, relatives and servants of the emperor had seized control of the government.

The result was disastrous. High taxes plunged many families into poverty, and workers were forced to labor for long periods of time on public projects. Additionally, bandits attacked farmers in the countryside. All of this turmoil led warlords to oppose the emperor and fight against one another, causing the government to become weak and unable to protect farmers.

Small farmers suffered because they were required to pay taxes and give half of everything they produced to their landlords. As they plunged into debt, they were forced to give up their own land to large landowners and work for them, instead.

Finally, the farmers rebelled because they believed that the Han dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven. No new dynasty took over from the Han, so China broke apart into separate kingdoms, just as Europe did after the fall of Rome. Nomadic invaders ruled the north, while several short-lived dynasties ruled the south.

In 589, the northern state of Sui (SWAY) conquered the south and reunified China. The Sui dynasty created a new central government and ruled for 29 years, but by 617, heavy taxes led to unrest and a struggle for power.

In 618, a general named Li Yuan declared himself emperor and established the Tang dynasty. Tang rulers built on the accomplishments of the Sui dynasty, strengthened the central government, and increased Tang influence over outlying areas.

Under the Tang, a unified China enjoyed a period of wealth and power that lasted nearly 300 years. Let's now examine how Tang rulers approached problems of government.

Aristocracy: The Tang Dynasty

Like earlier emperors, Tang rulers relied on a large bureaucracy. Officials collected taxes, oversaw building and irrigation projects, managed the army, and enforced the laws. But how could emperors ensure that they selected the best people for these positions?

Earlier emperors answered this question in different ways. Before the Han dynasty, emperors chose members of the aristocracy to help them govern. These people were born into noble families of wealthy and powerful landowners. However, simply being wealthy did not guarantee an individual was talented or knowledgeable.

To improve the bureaucracy, Han emperors created civil service examinations in which candidates took long tests to qualify for office. The tests had questions on Chinese classics, poetry, and legal and administrative issues. Mainly, they were based on the works of Confucius (kon-FEW-shus), China's great philosopher and teacher. This began the system under which a class of scholar-officials ran the government.

Later, Tang emperors also used civil service exams to fill some government positions. Early in the dynasty, however, emperors chose aristocrats for most high-level jobs. Some officials were hired because their fathers or grandfathers had held high government rank, and some were hired because of personal recommendations. Often, aristocrats gained positions by marrying into the imperial family.

Even the civil service exams favored aristocrats. The tests were supposedly open to all except for certain groups, such as merchants, actors, and beggars. In theory, any man could attend the university where students prepared for the exams. In reality, however, only the wealthy could afford tutors, books, and time to study properly. As a result, aristocrats held almost all offices in the early part of the Tang dynasty.

After peasant rebellions and battles between generals ended the Tang dynasty in 907, China split apart once again. Five military dynasties followed one another to power in the north, while the south broke up into independent kingdoms.

Beginning in 960, the Song (SOONG) dynasty rose. Gradually, Song emperors reunified the country. As you will see, they built on the civil service system to reform how government officials were chosen.

Learning About World Religions: Buddhism

Introduction

Hinduism, which developed in ancient India, is one of the oldest major religions in the world. But ancient India is also the birth place of another major religion, Buddhism.

Buddhism is based on the teachings of the Buddha (BOO-duh), which means “Awakened One.” The Buddha was a man who lived in India from about 563 to 483 B.C.E. Before he became known as the Buddha, he was a young prince named Siddhartha Gautama (si-DAHR-tuh GOW-tuh-muh).

Prince Siddhartha grew up surrounded by wealth in the palaces of his father. At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his royal life to go in search of spiritual peace. During his journeys, he learned great truths that changed his life. By sharing these truths with others, he began the religion of Buddhism.

Buddhism was a way of life based on simple teachings. Buddhism also embraced all people regardless of their social class. It taught people how to reach enlightenment, which describes happiness that comes from the knowledge of deep truth. Buddhists believed that once they reached the level of enlightenment, they would escape from the cycle of rebirth.

Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism also changed during this time in China. While the network of trade routes known as the Silk Road allowed goods to flow between countries, it also allowed for the exchange of ideas and knowledge from one culture to another. Christians and Muslims used the Silk Road to help spread their beliefs to the people in the East. Buddhist missionaries and travelers from the Indian subcontinent also spread their religion to other places around the world using the Silk Road.

As Buddhist merchants traveled to foreign countries to trade, they would sometimes build shrines and temples along the Silk Road. Over time larger temples, such as the Cave Temples of Dunhuang, the Yungang Grottoes, and the Buddhas of Bamiyan, were created. Soon, Buddhist temples could be found in Southeast Asia, China, and the Middle East. Many of these larger temples can still be visited today.

Buddhist priests and monks preached at these temples, and spread the ideas of Buddhism to local people and passing travelers alike. To many, the ideas of equality taught in Buddhism were appealing, and the religion spread quickly throughout Asia.

In China, many of these Buddhist missionaries began translating sacred Buddhist texts into Chinese. People from China also began making pilgrimages into India to learn more about Buddhism. In the late 620s, Xuan Zang, a man from a prominent Chinese family, made a pilgrimage throughout Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Nepal to learn more about Buddhism. Over the course of his journey, Xuan Zang collected over 600 Buddhist texts, which he brought back to China.

As Buddhism spread into China, it came in contact with the philosophies of Daoism and Confucianism. In Daoism, people are taught to discover truth for themselves. The goal of Confucianism, on the other hand, is to create a just and peaceful society. The interactions of these philosophies with Buddhism allowed the religion to spread quickly throughout China. For example, Buddhist missionaries in China borrowed from the Daoist vocabulary. This allowed the people of China to more clearly understand Buddhist teachings.

Buddhism's interaction with Daoism and Confucianism led to the formation of a popular form of Buddhism that incorporated ideas from all three. Chinese Buddhism focused on moral living, rituals, and a dedication to one's family and community. Several concepts of Buddhism changed in this new popular religion. For example, the concept of nirvana, or true happiness and peace, came from the idea that one could break free, after many lifetimes of effort, from the cycle of life and death and thereby escape all suffering. However, in China, the concept of nirvana changed to become a sudden and spontaneous realization. Buddha himself, who is first viewed as a wise man in the earliest forms of Buddhism, became a god-like figure in Buddhist texts that spread throughout China.

Another aspect of Buddhism that took root in China was the concept of Mahayana. In Mahayana Buddhism, divine beings, called bodhisattvas, delayed their entry into nirvana and instead chose to help people on Earth. Some forms of Mahayana Buddhism taught that people could attain salvation through faith in Amita or Amida, the Buddha of Infinite Light, a very powerful and compassionate bodhisattva.

Thousands of monasteries were built in China during this period. At its height in the 9th century, there were nearly 50,000 monasteries in China. Buddhism's popularity in China caused it to quickly spread to Korea and Japan.

Confucian scholar-officials and Daoist priests, however, were concerned about the growth of this “foreign religion.” Tang emperors stopped accepting Buddhism and began to persecute it. They also prevented Buddhism from becoming the official religion of China. Despite this, many parts of Asia had already incorporated Buddhist teachings into their cultures.

Confucianism

Confucianism is based on the teachings of Kongfuzi, who is called Confucius (kuhn-FYOO-shuhs) by Western society. This philosophy deeply influenced Chinese government and culture.

The Founder of Confucianism 

Confucius lived from about 551 to 479 B.C.E. He was born in the small state of Lu, in eastern China.He experienced firsthand the disorder that erupted when lords fought for power. Between 722 and 481 B.C.E., his own state was invaded many times.

Confucius deeply respected Chinese traditions, such as reverence for ancestors and learning. However, he also realized that society and government needed to evolve if peace and order were to exist. Specifically, rulers needed to govern wisely. Confucius wanted to educate men of good character to serve society as honest and fair government officials.

The Teachings of Confucianism 

The goal of Confucianism was to achieve a just and peaceful society. Confucius taught that society worked well when all people used standards of good behavior in their roles and in their relationships with others.

According to Confucianism, there are five basic relationships between people: ruler and subject, husband and wife, father and son, older sibling and younger sibling, and friend and friend. All people must respect and obey those who are above them in status. In particular, they must respect their elders. In return, those with authority, such as rulers, fathers, husbands, and older siblings, must set a good example. They should be kind, honest, wise, and faithful.Confucius instructed, “Do not do to others what you would not want done to you.”

The Influence of Confucianism

The philosophy of Confucius attracted a number of students who spread his ideas and teachings. After his death, some of these students collected his sayings in a book called The Analects. Later scholars further developed Confucianism.

Confucianism had a very practical effect on the government of a later dynasty, the Han dynasty. In China, civil servants were traditionally the sons of nobles. However, that did not ensure that they had the ability and wisdom to do their jobs well. The influence of Confucianism led Han leaders to hire civil servants on the basis of their ability. To be qualified, government workers were expected to know the Chinese classic texts in detail. For example, they studied these teachings to learn the proper behavior required of people in the various roles in society, from laborers to government officials. To prove that candidates retained this knowledge, they had to take exams that the emperor himself might grade.

The teachings of Confucius had a major influence on Chinese culture. Values such as respect for elders, proper behavior, and love of scholarship became deeply woven into Chinese society. Even today, the sayings of Confucius are wise and practical. Here are two examples from 

The Analects:

Confucius said to his follower:

The gentleman first practices what he preaches

and then preaches what he practices.

Confucius said to his student:

Shall I teach you what knowledge is?

When you know a thing, say that you know it;

when you do not know a thing,

admit that you do not know it.

That is knowledge.

Meritocracy: The Song Dynasty

Under Song emperors, the idea of scholar-officials reached its height. The Song relied on civil service exams and made them available to far more candidates, creating a meritocracy.

A new school of thought known as neo-Confucianism influenced the exams. This new teaching blended the teachings of Confucius with elements of Buddhism and Daoism (two traditional religions in China).

A Confucian scholar, Zhu Xi (JU SHEE), commented on classic Chinese writings. In 1190, his work was published as the Four Books, which became the basis of study for all civil service exams.

Confucius taught that people must act properly in five important relationships: ruler and subject, father and son, older sibling and younger sibling, husband and wife, and friend and friend. Except for friends, one person in each relationship is above the other. Those above should be kind to those below, while those below should respect and obey those above. In particular, subjects must be loyal to their rulers. Song emperors and scholars believed that officials who had studied Confucius would be rational, moral, and able to maintain order.

Under the Song, people from lower classes gained the ability to become scholar-officials since they could attend the new state-supported schools and continue on to the university. If they passed a local test, they became eligible to take the imperial exam in the capital. On those exams, they wrote essays and poems in a certain style and answered questions about political and social problems based on Confucian ideas.

The exams were organized to prevent cheating. Candidates were locked in a small room for several days. A second person copied each paper so that the examiners would not know whose work they were reading.

Only a small proportion of candidates passed the difficult exams. Those who failed could take the tests again in the future. Those who passed had to wait a few years before their first appointment. When it came, it was for a job far from their hometown, so that they could not give unfair advantages to their family and friends. At the end of three years, officials could move up in rank.

Despite the challenges, people were happy to receive such respected positions. As government officials, they also enjoyed certain privileges, such as being excused from taxes and military service.

Government by Foreigners: The Period of Mongol Rule

In the 13th century, the Mongols conquered almost all of Asia. In 1276, they captured China's imperial capital. Three years later, the last Song emperor died fleeing from the invaders.

The Mongol leader, Kublai Khan (KOOH-bly KAHN), took the title of emperor of China and called his dynasty the Yuan dynasty. For nearly 100 years, from 1279 to 1368, China was under Mongol rule.

Under the Mongols, Chinese society was divided into four classes. The Mongols were at the top. Next came foreigners who were their friends, including Tibetans, Persians, Turks, and Central Asians. Many of them were Muslims. The third class was made up of the northern Chinese, who were more accustomed to the neighboring Mongols. The southern Chinese came last.

Kublai Khan ended the system of civil service exams because he did not believe that Confucian learning was needed for government jobs nor did he want to rely on Chinese people to run his government. To fill important positions, he chose other Mongols whom he felt he could trust. Some of these people were his relatives.

Unfortunately, there weren't enough Mongols to fill every job. Besides, many were illiterate, or unable to read and write. Kublai and later Mongol emperors needed people who could handle the paperwork of a complex government, so they were forced to appoint trusted foreigners to government positions, even some Europeans.Chinese scholars were appointed only as teachers and minor officials. Other Chinese worked as clerks, and some of them rose to important positions.

Without the examination system, however, there was a shortage of capable administrators. In 1315, the Mongols restored the exam system, although they set limits on who could take the exam, favoring Mongol and other non-Chinese candidates.

As time passed, fighting among Mongol leaders weakened the government of China, as did the greed and corruption of officials. Additionally, the Mongols had made many enemies among the native Chinese. In the 1350s and 1360s, rebels rose up against them. In 1368, the Mongol dynasty collapsed, and the Chinese reestablished their own government under the Ming dynasty, which ruled China for nearly 300 years.

Chinese Discoveries and Inventions

How have medieval Chinese discoveries and inventions influenced the modern world?

Introduction

Between about 200 and 1400 C.E., the Chinese made many discoveries and inventions. Many of these advances occurred during the Tang and Song dynasties, and the influence of these advancements is still evident today.

Over the centuries, Chinese scholars and scientists studied engineering, mathematics, science, and medicine, among other subjects. Their studies led to scientific and technological progress that was often far ahead of advances in the rest of the world.

To understand the importance of one Chinese innovation, suppose that you are a trader in the 10th century. You are far out at sea on a Chinese junk loaded with goods you are bringing to Korea. Without landmarks to guide you, how do you know in which direction you're headed? Normally, you might steer by the sun or the stars. But what if it's cloudy? Can you still figure out which way to travel?

In the past, you might have been lost. But thanks to the magnetic compass, you can find your way. Your compass is a magnetized needle that aligns itself with Earth's magnetic poles so that one end points north and the other south. By the Song dynasty, the Chinese were using this type of compass to help them navigate on long voyages. People still use the same kind of device today.

Like the compass, other Chinese inventions and discoveries made it possible for people to do things better than they had before. In this lesson, you will learn about Chinese advances in exploration and travel, industry, military technology, everyday objects, and disease prevention. You will see that the influence of many Chinese ideas reached far beyond China.

Exploration and Travel

Several Chinese inventions made exploration and travel safer and faster. Some innovations benefited traders and other voyagers who ventured out to sea, while others improved travel on rivers, lakes, canals, and bridges within China.

Improving Travel by Sea 

The Chinese developed the first compass as early as the 3rd century B.C.E. The first Chinese compasses were pieces of a magnetic mineral called lodestone. Earth itself is like a giant magnet with north and south poles. Because lodestone is magnetic, it is influenced by Earth's magnetic poles. If you put a piece of lodestone on wood and float it in a bowl of water, the lodestone will turn until it points in a north-south direction.

Europeans also developed a compass using lodestone. Eventually, the Chinese replaced the lodestone with a steel needle because they learned that rubbing a needle with lodestone made the needle act in the same way as the lodestone. However, a needle in a compass gave a more accurate reading than a piece of lodestone.

By the time of the Song dynasty, the Chinese were using magnetic compasses for navigation at sea. Compasses made long sea voyages possible because sailors could figure out directions even without a landmark or a point in the sky to steer by. The compass remains an important navigational tool today.

Additionally, the Chinese made sea travel safer by improving boat construction. By the 2nd century C.E., they started building ships with separate, watertight compartments. Builders divided the ships into sections and sealed each section with caulk, a sealant that repels water. If there were a leak, it would be isolated, and the other compartments would not fill with water, keeping the ship afloat.Modern shipbuilders still use this technique.

Improving Travel on Rivers, Lakes, Canals, and Bridges 

Within China, people often traveled by boat on rivers or across lakes. An innovation of a vessel called a paddlewheel boat made this type of travel much faster.

Have you ever paddled a canoe or other small boat? As you push your paddle through the water, the boat moves forward. In the 5th century, the Chinese adapted this idea by arranging a series of paddles in a wheel. People walked on a treadmill to turn the paddlewheel, which in turn moved through the water, moving the boat forward. The Romans had also developed a paddlewheel-powered boat, but it was powered by oxen, which are not as easy to direct as people.

The people-powered paddlewheel boats allowed the Chinese to travel much faster on rivers and lakes, and were also much easier to maneuver than other types of watercraft. People still use this type of boat for recreational activities.

Another way the Chinese improved transportation was by developing a new type of canal lock, during the Song dynasty. The Chinese used canals extensively to connect the many rivers. As the surrounding land sloped up, parts of canals were at different levels. Before the improved locks were invented, the Chinese had to drag their boats up stone ramps to reach water at a higher level, a difficult task that could damage the boats.

The new canal locks solved this problem. When a boat entered the lock, a gate was lowered to hold in water. The water was then allowed to rise until it reached the level of the water up ahead, and the boat floated on. To go “downhill,” water was released by the lock until it fell to the level of the water down below.

The innovative new type of locks made canal travel much easier. Locks could raise boats more than 100 feet above sea level.

The Chinese also found ways to improve bridges. For example, in 618 C.E., a Chinese engineer completed a new type of arched bridge. In Europe, Roman-designed bridges rested on arches that were half-circles. The new Chinese bridge used arches that were a smaller part, or segment, of a circle, making the bridges broader and flatter than semicircular arches could. Called a segmental arch bridge, the new type of bridge required less material to build and was stronger, as well.

Many cultures developed engineering technologies. However, the segmental arch bridge is one of China's most prized achievements. Bridges of that design stretch over expressways around the world.

Industry

Some Chinese advances led to new industries. During this period, the medieval Chinese made advances and innovations in the way they produced paper, print, tea, porcelain, and steel.

Paper 

By the 2nd century C.E., the Chinese invented the art of papermaking. Historians believe the earliest Chinese paper was probably made from hemp and then the bark of the mulberry tree. Later, the Chinese used rags.

Papermaking became an important industry in China. For more than 500 years, the Chinese were the only people in the world who knew the secret of making paper. From China, knowledge of papermaking traveled to Japan and across Central Asia. Europeans probably first learned about this art after 1100. Considering how important it is for recording and transmitting information, few inventions have been more important in history than paper.

Printing 

The invention of paper made another key development possible: printing. In about the 7th century, the Chinese invented a technique called woodblock printing. The printer first drew characters (symbols) on paper and then glued the paper to a wooden block. When the glue was dry, the printer carved out the wood around the characters, leaving the characters raised on the wood.

To print from the block, the printer covered the characters with black ink, spread paper over the block, and smoothed the paper with a brush. Some artists still use block printing today to create fine art prints.

By the 8th century, there was an entire woodblock printing industry in China. Printers created religious and other works on scrolls. In the 10th century, the Chinese started printing modern-style books with pages.

In the 11th century, during the Song dynasty, the Chinese invented movable type, which consists of separate blocks for each character. (Europeans developed movable type independently in the 1400s.) Printers made their type by carving characters out of clay and baking them. To print, they selected the characters they needed and placed them in an iron frame in the order they would appear on the page. When the printing job was complete, the type could be removed from the frame and rearranged to use again.

With the invention of movable type, printers no longer had to create a new set of woodblocks for each item they printed. This dramatically lowered the cost and labor of printing. Written materials became more widely available, and advances in printing helped spread learning throughout China. Until the last century, all newspapers, books, and magazines were printed using movable type.

The first woodblock prints were made in one color, usually with black ink. Then printers began making several versions of one scene and printed each with a different color. With this method, they could produce a colorful picture.

Tea 

Historians have discovered from written accounts that the Chinese have been drinking tea since at least 2700 B.C.E. For several thousand years, tea — made by steeping tea leaves in boiling water — was drunk mostly as medicine. However, by the 8th century C.E., tea had become a hugely popular everyday beverage that was enjoyed throughout China. Tea houses had sprung up throughout the country. A famous writer, Lu Yu, wrote a book, Cha Jing (Tea Classic), describing how to cultivate, prepare, and drink tea. The drink's popularity made tea-plant cultivation a major industry, often involving an entire community.

Basic tea cultivation and processing has not changed much since early times. Tea farmers grow small tea trees or shrubs on high ground, usually above 4,000 feet. When the trees are ready for harvest, only new-growth leaves are picked — by hand. Then the tree is pruned, or cut back, so it will grow new leaves for the next harvest, and the cycle repeats several times a year. Workers then dry the fresh leaves by leaving them out in sunlight for different numbers of days, depending on the variety of tea. The final drying process occurs in a dry wok or in a small oven.

During the Tang Dynasty, the first tea-plant seeds were brought to Japan where tea cultivation developed into an industry by about 1200. Europeans became involved in tea farming and trade by the 18th century. Dutch traders brought seeds from Japan and China to their colonies in Indonesia. Tea plants were found in the British territories of Burma (now Myanmar) and India. The Dutch and British produced and traded tea throughout their empires, spreading the beverage around the world and competing for the tea trade in the 

13 American colonies. During the Boston Tea Party, colonists tossed British tea into Boston Harbor, helping to spark the American Revolution. Today, tea is one of the most popular beverages in the world, and, as in ancient China, people now often drink tea for their health.

Porcelain 

Another Chinese invention is a type of fine pottery called porcelain. Some historians believe that the Chinese produced the first porcelain as early as the 1st century C.E.

Porcelain is made by combining clay with the minerals quartz and feldspar, and it is then baked in a kiln, or pottery oven, at very high temperatures. The resulting pottery is white, hard, and waterproof. Despite its sturdiness, light can still pass through porcelain, creating an appearance that is quite delicate and beautiful.

By the 10th century, the Chinese were making porcelain of great artistry. Craftspeople learned how to paint pictures on porcelain and made colored glazes to decorate their work.

Porcelain making became a major industry in China. Hundreds of thousands of people worked to mass-produce dishes, bowls, and vases. Some workers washed the clay, while others applied the glaze or operated the kiln.

Since Europeans did not learn how to make fine porcelain until the 18th century, Chinese porcelain became a prized item for trade.Many people consider medieval Chinese porcelain to be the finest in the world, and people today still refer to fine porcelain dinnerware as “china.”

Steel 

The Chinese first made steel, a very useful metal, before 200 B.C.E. Steel is made from iron, but it is less brittle than iron and easier to bend into different shapes.

The earliest Chinese steel was made from cast iron. The Chinese were the first to learn how to make cast iron by melting and molding iron ore. Later they learned that blowing air into molten, or melted, cast iron causes a chemical reaction that creates steel, which is a great deal stronger than iron.

These developments eventually made it possible to produce large amounts of steel cheaply. In the 1800s, the mass production of steel was crucial to the Industrial Revolution in the West. Today, iron and steel making are among China's most important industries.

Military Technology

During the Song and Mongol periods, the Chinese developed powerful weapons. The invention of gunpowder — one of the most significant inventions in history — made these weapons possible.

The Development of Gunpowder 

The Chinese who first made gunpowder were alchemists, people who practiced a blend of science and magic known as alchemy. Alchemists experimented with mixtures of natural ingredients in an attempt to locate a substance that might allow people to become immortal. They also searched for a way to make gold out of cheaper metals.

Chinese alchemists experimented with a mineral called saltpeter, which they may have believed could extend life. Perhaps by accident, they discovered that it could be used to make an explosive powder. In 850 C.E., during the Tang dynasty, alchemists recorded a formula for gunpowder but warned others to avoid it because it was extremely dangerous.

By the 10th century, the Chinese had developed the first weapon that used gunpowder: the flamethrower. Early flamethrowers contained gunpowder mixed with oil and were used to spray enemies with a stream of fire.

Between the 11th and 14th centuries, the Chinese created many other weapons using gunpowder. Artillery shells, for example, exploded after being hurled at enemies by a war machine called a catapult. The sound of the exploding shells confused the enemy and terrified their horses. Small bombs, or grenades, were lit and thrown by hand.

In the 13th century, the Chinese used large bombs that were as explosive as modern bombs. Around the same time, they developed weapons much like today's rifles and cannons.

By the early 1300s, travelers had brought the knowledge of gunpowder to Europe. Gunpowder forever changed the way people waged war and, eventually, weapons like crossbows, swords, and spears gave way to guns and cannons.

Rocket Technology 

Rocket technology was developed in China during the Song dynasty. Rockets were powered by a black powder made of saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur. Initially, rockets were used only in fireworks, but later, the Chinese used them as weapons and even developed a two-stage rocket for their armies. The first stage propelled the rocket through the air, and the second stage dropped arrows down on the enemy.

Everyday Objects

Do you ever play games with a deck of cards? If so, you are using a Chinese invention. The Chinese invented a number of everyday objects people use today, including game cards, paper money, and mechanical clocks, all of which were developed during the Tang dynasty.

Game Cards and Paper Money

Game cards were invented in China in about the 9th century. Printers used woodblock printing to make the cards from thick paper, and famous artists drew the designs that appeared on the backs of the cards. Europeans were introduced to card games by the late 1300s. Today, card games are played throughout the world. 

The Chinese invented paper money in the late 8th or early 9th century. Before that time, coins were the only form of currency. Like game cards, paper money was printed with wood blocks. By 1107, Song printers were using multiple wood blocks to print each bill. A single bill would include many colors. Paper money is the most common form of currency in the world today.

The Development of the Mechanical Clock

The Chinese developed the first mechanical clock in about the 8th century. The new clock was more accurate than earlier timekeeping devices, such as sundials and hourglasses. The Chinese devised a wheel that made one complete turn every 24 hours. Dripping water made the wheel turn. Every quarter hour, drums would beat; and every hour, a bell would chime. The sounds let people know what time it was.

The Chinese improved the mechanical clock in 1092, during the Song dynasty. Although the new clock worked on the same principles as the earlier one, it was much more complex and accurate.

Europeans first developed mechanical clocks in the late 1200s. As with Chinese clocks, a bell rang to indicate the hour. Later, dials and hands were added. Modern-day mechanical clocks are based on the same fundamental principles as early Chinese clocks.

Disease Prevention

Chinese knowledge of medicine and disease prevention dates to ancient times. Before the 1st century C.E., the Chinese developed a way of fighting infectious diseases, which can spread from person to person. When an individual died from an infectious disease, the Chinese burned a chemical that released a poisonous smoke that they believed would destroy whatever was causing the illness.

Today, it is well known that many diseases are caused by germs and that people can prevent the spread of disease by using disinfectants — substances like chlorine bleach that kill germs. The poisonous smoke used by the Chinese was a type of disinfectant.

During the Song dynasty, the Chinese discovered another way to prevent the spread of disease. A Chinese monk recommended steaming the clothes of sick people because he believed that the steam would prevent others from becoming ill. The idea was sound, because hot temperatures kill many germs. Today, people boil medical instruments to kill disease-causing germs.

Sometime around the 10th century, the Chinese discovered how to inoculate people against smallpox, a dreaded infectious disease. Inoculation is a way of stimulating a person's immune system to fight a particular disease. It works by exposing the person to a disease-carrying substance. To inoculate people against smallpox, Chinese physicians took a small part of a scab from an infected person, crushed it into a powder, and then inserted the powder into the nose of the person they wanted to immunize, or protect against the disease. 

The Chinese knew that they had to be careful when exposing people to smallpox. Sometimes the treatment itself caused people to become ill. To be as cautious as possible, the Chinese took the infectious material from people who had already been inoculated.

Chinese knowledge about smallpox inoculation eventually led to the development of drugs called vaccines. Modern medical professionals have developed vaccines for many diseases, including smallpox and the flu.