FEUDAL JAPAN:

Outside Influence, Golden Age, and Samurai

UNIT SUMMARY:

From China we will move east into the nation of Japan. As an island, Japan’s geography has played a large role in the lives of the people who live there. From a lack of farmable land to a seafood heavy diet, it shows where we live affects how we live. Besides the influence of the land in the everyday lives of the Japanese, their was also significant cultural influence from nearby China and Korea, as well as India.

Our focus on Japan will include a discussion about the impact of Japanese leaders like Prince Shotoku and their desire to borrow ideas and customs from other lands, like Buddhism and Confucianism. These beliefs made their way into Japan and eventually combined with the native belief system of Shinto. During the Heian period, many nobles and aristocrats (rich people) focused on developing the arts, writing, and entertainment. This is considered Japan’s ‘Golden Age’. Finally, the rise of a new class occurred when war broke out and the need for masterful fighters was great. The beginning of the samurai class went in line with the rule of the shogun and power of the daimyo nobles of Japan. Their intense training and bushido code make samurai the stuff of legend.

During this unit you will focus on three different aspects of Feudal Japan and use the information you gather to help prepare for the unit assessments at the end. Our focus will include:

• Explaining the influence that China, Korea, and India had on Japanese culture through the efforts of Prince Shotoku.

• Understanding the developments of arts and entertainment during Japan’s golden age, the Heian period.

• Describing the rise and characteristics of the samurai class and role of the shogun and daimyo in Japanese feudalism.

Introduction

The Influence of Neighboring Cultures on Japan

The island country of Japan lies just off the eastern coast of the Asian mainland. Japan's culture was enriched by borrowing from other places in Asia between the 6th and the 9th centuries C.E.

Many ideas traveled to Japan by way of the Korean Peninsula, but some of these ideas originally came from China and India. For example, in the mid-500s, Buddhist priests from Korea visited Japan. In this way, the Japanese were introduced to Buddhism, which had begun in India about one thousand years earlier. Similarly, the Japanese borrowed the style of their curved-roofed pagodas from China, which had adopted it from India's bell-shaped roofs.

In 593, a female ruler, Empress Suiko, came to power in Japan. Her nephew Prince Shotoku admired Chinese and Korean culture and encouraged contact with these mainland countries. In 607, he sent an official representative to the Chinese court. Upper-class Japanese began traveling to China and Korea, where they learned about Chinese literature, art, philosophy, and government. Groups of Koreans also came to Japan, bringing with them their extensive knowledge of Chinese culture.

Over the next 300 years, Japan absorbed elements of culture — objects, ideas, and customs — from the Asian mainland. As you may remember, the spread of cultural elements is called cultural diffusion. In this lesson, you will learn how cultural diffusion helped to shape medieval Japanese culture including its language, art, architecture, and music from India, China, and Korea. You will discover how the Japanese blended ideas from other cultures into their own unique civilization.

Cultural Influences on Japan

By the time Empress Suiko and Prince Shotoku came to power in 593, cultural influences from the Asian mainland had been reaching Japan for hundreds of years. For example, craftspeople from the Korean Peninsula had brought knowledge of bronze casting and advanced ironworking to Japan. Immigrants and visitors from Korea had also introduced Japan to Confucianism and Buddhism. However, as Suiko, Shotoku, and later rulers sought out contact with the mainland, the pace of cultural diffusion quickened.

Japan in Empress Suiko's and Prince Shotoku's day was a rural, agricultural society. People grew rice and other crops. The upper classes owned slaves and lived in houses with wooden floors and roofs of wood or thatch. The common people lived in huts with dirt floors and thatched roofs. Family life centered on the mother, who raised the children, while fathers often lived apart from their families.Compared to later eras, women enjoyed relatively high status.

Japan at this time was far from being a unified country. Power was divided among chiefs of a number of clans called uji (OOH-jee).But one ruling family in the region of Yamato, on the island of Honshu, had grown powerful enough to loosely control much of Japan. Empress Suiko came from this line of rulers, as did Prince Shotoku, who ruled as regent under the empress.

Under Suiko, Shotoku, and later rulers, the government of Japan took an active interest in Korean and Chinese culture. Sometimes, knowledge of mainland culture came from Japanese who traveled to China. Sometimes, it came in the form of gifts, such as books and art objects, sent from the mainland to Japan. Sometimes, it came from Korean workers who settled in Japan, bringing their knowledge and skills with them.

During the next three centuries, Japan sent officials, students, translators, and monks on ships across the sea to China. These people often remained in China for years before returning home with what they had learned. They also brought many examples of mainland culture, including paintings, religious statues, and musical instruments. As a result of these contacts, the Japanese acquired new ideas in government, the arts, architecture, and writing.

The Japanese did not just change their old ways for new ways, however. Instead, they blended new ideas with their own traditions to create a unique culture. Let's look at several areas in which this happened, beginning with government.

Government: Imitating the Chinese System

Starting with Prince Shotoku, Japanese rulers adopted new ideas about government from China. China's form of government was both like and unlike Japan's. For example, the emperors in China and Japan had quite different powers. The emperor in China was the sole ruler, whereas in Japan, the emperor had only loose control over the semi-independent uji. Uji controlled their own land, and their leaders struggled among themselves for the right to select the emperor and influence his decisions.

While Japanese emperors depended on local leaders, the Chinese emperor ruled with the help of a bureaucracy of government officials. At least in theory, appointments to government jobs were based on merit. Any man who did well on an examination could become an official.

During the 7th and 8th centuries, Japanese rulers adopted a Chinese style of government. Japanese tradition credits Prince Shotoku with starting this development. Borrowing Confucian ideas, the prince created ranks for government officials. In 604, he issued a set of guidelines called the Seventeen Article Constitution, which stated that the emperor was the supreme ruler: “In a country there are not two lords; the people have not two masters. The sovereign is the master of the people of the whole country.”

Later rulers went much further in bringing Chinese-style changes to Japan. In the late 7th century, Emperor Tenmu and his wife and successor Empress Jitō reformed and strengthened the central government. Control of the land was taken away from clan leaders and given to the emperor. The emperor then redistributed the land to all free men and women, and in return, people paid heavy taxes to support the imperial government.

By the 700s, Japan's imperial government looked much like China's. It was strongly centralized and supported by a large bureaucracy. Over time, however, one key difference emerged. Although Prince Shotoku had called for government officials to be chosen on the basis of their ability, as in China, a powerful aristocracy developed in Japan during the 9th century. As a result, members of noble families held all the high positions in the government.

Religion: Buddhism Comes to Japan

Nara's Buddhist temples were another result of cultural diffusion.Buddhism began in India in the 500s B.C.E., and about 1,000 years later, it came to Japan from China by way of Korea.

Japan's original religion was Shinto. This religion expresses the love and respect of the Japanese for nature. Its followers worship spirits called kami, which are impressive natural objects, such as wind, lightning, rivers, mountains, waterfalls, large trees, and unusual stones. The emperor and other special people are also considered kami.

Instead of emphasizing a code of morality, Shinto stresses purifying whatever is unclean, such as dirt, wounds, and disease. Touching the dead also makes one unclean. Most of all, however, Shintoists celebrate life and the beauty of nature.

In contrast, Buddhists see life as full of pain and suffering. The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama, taught that life is an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. To escape this cycle, one must follow a moral code called the Eightfold Path, which emphasizes showing respect for others, acting rightly, and achieving wisdom through meditation. Following the path leads to enlightenment, or seeing the world as it really is. Those who achieve enlightenment can enter nirvana, a state of perfect peace, and will never be born again into a life of suffering.

By finding the path to enlightenment, Siddhartha became the Buddha, or “enlightened one.” As Buddhism spread throughout India, a new form arose, called Mahayana, or “Greater Vehicle.” This name symbolizes a core teaching of Mahayana: that all people can reach nirvana. Its followers believe in bodhisattvas, Buddhists who can enter nirvana but choose instead to help others reach enlightenment. These godlike spirits live in different paradises, and worshippers pray to them in hopes of being reborn into one of these paradises. It is this form of Buddhism that spread along trade routes to China. The influence of Chinese culture brought Buddhism to Korea.

Mahayana Buddhism arrived in Japan in 552 when a Korean king sent the Japanese emperor a statue of the Buddha and a recommendation for the new religion. The statue arrived at the emperor's court surrounded by chanting monks, books of prayer, gongs, and banners. The emperor was not quite sure what to make of it. “The countenance [expression] of this Buddha,” he said, “is of a severe dignity such as we have never at all seen before. Ought it to be worshipped or not?” The members of an uji clan called the Soga, who were originally from Korea, were the main supporters of the new religion.

After a fierce controversy, the emperor and his court adopted the new religion. They admired its wisdom and rituals, and they considered the Buddha a protector of families and the nation. Later rulers, such as Prince Shotoku, learned more about Buddhism through Korean monks and teachers.

Buddhism did not replace Shinto. Instead, both religions thrived and even blended, with Buddhists building shrines to kami, and Shintoists enshrining bodhisattvas. Even today, ceremonies to celebrate birth and marriage often come from Shinto, the joyful religion, whereas funeral ceremonies are Buddhist, the religion that acknowledges suffering and pain.

Writing: Applying Chinese Characters to the Japanese Language

Ancient Japanese was only a spoken language. The Japanese had no writing system of their own, so written documents were in Chinese, a language the Japanese had learned from Korean scholars. Over time, however, the Japanese adapted Chinese characters, or written symbols, to write their own language.

First, Japanese scholars began using kanji, or “Chinese writing,” to write Japanese words. Kanji allowed the Japanese to keep records, write legends, and develop their own literature. However, using Chinese characters to read and write Japanese was difficult because the two languages have different grammar, sounds, and pronunciations.

By 900, the Japanese invented kana, which means “borrowed letters” in Japanese. In kana, simplified Chinese characters represent Japanese syllables. Kana allowed the Japanese to spell out the sounds of their own language. As a result, they were able to write freely in Japanese. Both kanji and kana are still part of written Japanese.

Literature: Adapting Chinese Poetic Form

The earliest literary works in Japan were poems that date from the 7th and 8th centuries. Using Chinese characters, Japanese poets developed a form of poetry called tanka, which was created from songs from Japan's oral tradition.

Tanka is based on the number of syllables in each line. Each short poem contains 31 syllables, divided into five lines of 5, 7, 5, 7, and 7 syllables. The poems are often devoted to love and to the beauty of nature.

Try to count the syllables in this Japanese tanka, which appears in English on the right. Has the translator kept to the tanka form?

• Haru tateba When spring comes

• Kiyuru koori no The melting ice

• Nokori naku Leaves no trace;

• Kimi ga kokoro mo Would that your heart too

• Ware ni tokenan Melted thus toward me.

Architecture: Adapting Temple Designs

New forms of temple design came to Japan from India by way of China. Like sculpture, temple architecture evolved as it moved east. In India, Buddhist monasteries featured shrines called stupas with roofs shaped like bells or inverted bowls. The Chinese replaced the bell shape with a series of stories and curved roofs, creating structures called pagodas. These tower-like buildings always had three, five, seven, or nine roofs.

When Buddhism arrived in Japan, the Japanese adopted the pagoda design. For Buddhist worship, Prince Shotoku founded the Horyuji, a magnificent temple in Nara with wooden buildings, including a hall for worship and a pagoda. Lofty pagodas soon appeared all around the capital city. They were intended to contain relics of the Buddha and of bodhisattvas, as well.

Buddhist pagodas may have inspired Shinto priests to build their own permanent shrines. Shinto shrines reflected Japan's agricultural society and the Japanese love of nature. Based on the idea of the raised storehouse, a symbol of plenty, these shrines had raised floors and thatched roofs. Unpainted and undecorated, they blended in with their natural surroundings.

Heian-kyo: The Heart of Japan's Golden Age

What was life like for aristocrats during the Heian period?

Introduction

The culture of medieval Japan was rich and varied due to exchanges with other Asian peoples. These exchanges enabled a unique Japanese culture to blossom between the 9th and the 12th centuries.

As you may know, Japan is close enough to the mainland of Asia to be affected by cultural ideas from that region. At the same time, the waterways separating Japan from mainland Asia helped protect the Japanese from conquest by other Asian peoples. As a result, Japan remained politically independent and had the chance to develop its own civilization.

For most of the 8th century, the city of Nara was the imperial capital of Japan. During this time, contact with China brought many new cultural ideas to Japan. Then, in 794, Emperor Kammu moved the capital to Heian-kyo (hay-AHN-keeyo), an event that marked the start of the Heian period, which lasted until 1185.

The Heian period is often called Japan's golden age. During this time, aristocrats led a great flourishing of Japanese culture. The aristocrats prized beauty, elegance, and correct manners. Over time, they developed new forms of literature and art. Poets wrote delicately about feelings and the fragile beauties of nature. Court women composed diaries and other types of nonfiction, as well as fiction. Painters and sculptors invented new styles of art. Performers entertained the court with new kinds of music, dance, and drama.

The brilliant culture of the Heian period still influences Japanese art and life. In this lesson, you will learn more about Japan's golden age. You will examine how Heian aristocrats lived and how they created new kinds of Japanese art and literature.

Writing and Literature During the Heian Period

Writing was the most valued form of expression in Heian Japan. Everyone was expected to show skill in using words well. Early Heian writers composed artful poems in Chinese, but as time passed, distinctly Japanese ways of writing developed both in daily life and in the creation of works of literature.

Writing in Daily Life

Poetry was part of daily life in Heian-kyo, and people were expected to compose poetry in public. If they could not think up a few clever lines to fit an occasion, others noticed the failure. Men and women carefully created poems to charm each other. When someone received a poem from a friend, family member, or acquaintance, he or she was expected to write one in response. The responding poem was supposed to be written in the same style and mood, and have the same imagery, as the original.

In earlier times, the Japanese had used kana, which was based on simplified Chinese characters, to write the syllables of their language. In Heian times, there were two ways of writing, much like we have cursive and print letters in English. One, katakana, was more formal. Men used katakana when they wrote anything important. The second form of writing was hiragana. Characters in hiragana are formed with simple strokes that make writing and reading easier and faster. Hiragana was mostly seen as “women's writing.” Court women favored hiragana for personal writing, such as diaries, and some of them used it to create lasting works of literature. Over time, hiragana took its place alongside katakana as part of Japan's written language.

Heian writers took care to present their work in a beautiful manner, since calligraphy skills were viewed as important as the ability to create poetry. People believed that handwriting revealed their character and goodness better than the words they used. Calligraphy was often displayed on colorful, handmade paper, and sometimes the paper was even perfumed.

Women Become Japan's Leading Writers

The female companions to the courtiers of Heian-kyo were usually selected for their intelligence. They often took a great interest in literature, and as a result, women led in the flowering of Japanese literature in the golden age of the 10th and 11th centuries.

The best-known Heian writer was Murasaki Shikibu, often referred to as Lady Murasaki. Born into the Fujiwara family, she served as a lady-in-waiting to one of the daughters of Fujiwara Michinaga. Her novel, the Tale of Genji (GEN-jee), is a Heian masterpiece and is today considered one of the great works of world literature.

The Tale of Genji is often called the world's first novel. The book follows the life of Genji, a fictional prince, and paints a vivid picture of life in the Heian court. Much of the book focuses on the thoughts and feelings of the characters, particularly the women. For this reason, the Tale of Genji has served as a model for the modern romance novel.

Murasaki also kept a diary about her life in the court. Like her novel, her diary offers a close look at court life in the period.

The other leading writer of the time was Sei Shonagon. Like the Tale of Genji, Shonagon's Pillow Book presents a detailed picture of life in Heian-kyo. Pillow Book is a collection of clever stories, character sketches, conversations, descriptions of art and nature, and various lists. Here is Shonagon's list of “Things That Should Be Short”:

a piece of thread when one wants to sew something in a hurry

a lamp stand

the hair of a woman of the lower classes

the speech of a young girl

Like Sei Shonagon, many Heian women wrote their thoughts and experiences in diaries. A book called The Gossamer Years is the earliest existing example. This diary by an unknown noblewoman describes her unhappy life as companion to a Fujiwara leader. Writers often included artwork, poems, and letters in their diary entries.

Sculpture and Painting During the Heian Period

During the Heian period, many artists continued to be influenced by Chinese art. Gradually, however, sculptors and painters created their own Japanese styles.

Early Heian sculptors commonly made an entire work from a single piece of wood. Later in this period, sculptors made statues by carving separate pieces from carefully selected wood and then joining them. With the help of assistants, sculptors could make the separate parts in large quantities, enabling them to create a group of similar statues quickly and precisely. Jocho, an artist who worked for Fujiwara Michinaga, probably developed this technique.

Jocho made perhaps the greatest masterpiece of Heian sculpture, the Amida Buddha. This beautifully carved Buddha, “The Lord of Boundless Light,” expresses a sense of deep peace and strength.

In painting, Heian artists consciously developed a Japanese style, which they called yamato-e, or “Japanese painting.” Painters drew their scenes with thin lines and then filled them in with bright colors. Lines were made quickly to suggest movement, but they were drawn more deliberately in restful scenes.

At first, artists used the new style to paint Buddhist subjects, but over time they focused on nonreligious scenes. There were four main types of yamato-e: landscapes showing the four seasons, places of natural beauty, people doing seasonal tasks, and scenes from literature (called “story paintings”).

The new style of painting was used to decorate walls, screens, and the sliding doors of houses and temples. Some of the most famous examples of yamato-e, however, are scroll paintings. A scroll painting shows a series of scenes from right to left so that viewers see events chronologically as they unroll the scroll. Scroll painting had been invented in China, but Heian painters added their own distinctive touches. For example, they often showed scenes inside buildings from above, as if the viewer were peering down though an invisible roof.

Entertainment at the Heian Court

Heian-kyo's aristocrats had plenty of leisure time for sporting events, games, and contests. Men enjoyed watching horse races, archery contests, and sumo wrestling. In sumo wrestling, which remains very popular in Japan, men of great weight try to throw each other to the ground or out of the ring. When the weather was warm, men and women alike enjoyed watching boat races along the river that flowed through the city.

Groups of courtiers played a game called kemari, in which they kicked a leather ball back and forth, keeping it in the air for as long as possible. They played in the same elegant robes they wore at court. Women used the stone pieces of the popular board game Go to play a game called rango, the object of which was to balance as many stones as possible on one finger.

Each of the many festivals and celebrations on the Heian calendar had its own customs. Many involved contests that tested athletic, poetic, or artistic skill. For example, in the Festival of the Snake, cups were floated in a stream. Guests took a cup, drank from it, and then had to compose and recite a poem. Other special days featured contests that judged the best-decorated fans, the most fragrant perfumes, the loveliest artwork, or the most graceful dancing.

Dancing was an important skill for Heian-kyo's nobles because dance was part of nearly every festival. Bugaku (boo-GAH-koo) performances, which combined dance with music and drama, were a popular form of entertainment. Bugaku dancers wore masks and acted out a simple story using memorized movements.

The Effect of the Heian Period on Japan Today

As you have learned, the Heian period witnessed the birth of a unique Japanese culture, and the effects of this cultural flowering are still felt today. In fact, much of Japan's culture has remained quite constant since the Heian period, which can be seen most clearly in Japan's literature and drama.

Heian authors influenced many later Japanese writers. The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu and Pillow Book by Sei Shonagon are classics that are as basic to Japanese culture as Shakespeare's works are to the English-speaking world.

The success of these writers had a major effect on Japan's written language. Today, Japanese people write with the same characters used in the Tale of Genji.

Heian influence is also seen in modern poetry. The short poems called tanka were very popular in Heian times, and this type of poetry remains a vibrant part of Japanese literature.

Modern Japanese drama also shows Heian influences. As you may recall, the bugaku performances of Heian times blended dance and drama. Bugaku led to Japan's unique Noh theater. In Noh dramas, a chorus sings a heroic story as performers dance and act it out. Noh theater is centuries old, but it is still a popular form of entertainment in Japan.

The Rise of the Warrior Class in Japan

What was the role of the samurai in the military society of medieval Japan?

Introduction

During the Heian period, Japan experienced a golden age. That period was followed by civil war. During this time of strife, a powerful warrior class arose — the samurai.

Minamoto Yoritomo came to power in Japan in 1185 and, by 1192, had taken the title of shogun, or commander-in-chief. Yoritomo did not replace the emperor, but he did set up a military government with its own capital in the city of Kamakura. While the imperial court remained in Heian-kyo, emperors played an increasingly less important role in the government of Japan.

The start of the Kamakura government marked the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. Eventually, professional warriors—the samurai—became Japan's ruling class. The era of the samurai lasted for 700 years, until the emperor was restored to power in 1868.

Over time, an elaborate culture and code of conduct grew up around the samurai. A samurai was expected to be honest, brave, and intensely loyal to his lord. In fact, the word samurai means “those who serve.” The samurai code was very strict. Samurai sometimes killed themselves with their own swords rather than “lose face,” or personal honor.

The samurai were more than fearless fighters. They were educated in art, writing, and literature, and many were devout Buddhists. Their religious faith helped them prepare for their duties and face death bravely.

In this lesson, you will meet Japan's samurai. You will learn about their armor, weapons, and the physical training needed for their strenuous battles. You also will find out about their mental training in self-control, their code of conduct, and the role they played in the military society of medieval Japan.

The Rise of the Samurai

The military government established by Minamoto Yoritomo was led by a shogun, or commander-in-chief. Although emperors continued to rule in name, the real power shifted to the shoguns.

Samurai Under the Shoguns

Shoguns, such as Yoritomo and his successors, rewarded warriors, or samurai, with appointments to office and land grants. In return, the samurai pledged to serve and protect the shogun.

The rise of the samurai brought a new emphasis on military values in Japanese culture. All samurai trained in the arts of war, especially archery. During this period, women, as well as men, could be samurai, so girls and boys alike were trained to harden their feelings and to use weapons. One samurai wrote,

Of what use is it to allow the mind to concentrate on the moon and flowers, compose poems, and learn how to play musical instruments? . . . Members of my household, including women, must learn to ride wild horses, and shoot powerful bows and arrows.

Shifting Loyalties

By the 14th century, Japan's warrior society resembled the lord-vassal system of medieval Europe. The shogun now ruled with the help of warrior-lords called daimyos (DIE-mee-os), who, in turn, were supported by large numbers of samurai. The daimyos expected to be rewarded for their obedience and loyalty with land, money, or administrative office, and the samurai expected the same from the daimyos they served.

Over time, the position of the shogun weakened as daimyos became increasingly powerful and began to view their lands as independent kingdoms. Samurai now allied themselves with their daimyo lords.

In the late 15th century, Japan fell into chaos as daimyos warred with one another for land and power. Samurai fought fierce battles on behalf of their lords.

After a century of bloody warfare, a series of skilled generals defeated rival daimyos and reestablished a strong military government. In 1603, the last of these leaders, Tokugawa Ieyasu (TAW-koo-GAH-wah EE-yeh-YAH-soo), became shogun and established a new capital in Edo, present-day Tokyo.

For the next 250 years, Japan was at peace. Samurai served under shoguns and administered the government. It was during this time that the samurai ideal came to full flower. Let's look now at the samurai way of life.

The Samurai's Armor and Weapons

A samurai was first and foremost a warrior. Let's look at what the samurai wore in battle and the weapons they used.

Armor

Samurai went into battle dressed in heavy armor, under which was a colorful robe called a kimono and baggy trousers.Leather or cloth shin guards protected their legs.

Samurai armor was unique. It was made of rows of small, lacquer-coated metal plates that were laced together with colorful silk cords. This type of armor was strong yet flexible enough for the samurai to move freely.

Boxlike panels of armor covered samurai's chest and back, and metal sleeves covered their arms. Broad shoulder guards and panels that hung over their hips provided additional protection. Some samurai wore thigh guards as well.

After dressing in body armor, samurai put on a ferocious-looking iron mask that was designed to frighten opponents as well as to protect their face. Last came the helmet. Before putting on the helmet, samurai burned incense in it so that their head would smell sweet if cut off in battle.

Weapons

Samurai fought with bows and arrows, spears, and swords. Their wooden bow could be up to eight feet long and, as such, required great strength to use. In battle, samurai on horseback rode toward each other, pulling arrows from the quivers on their backs and firing them at the enemy.

In hand-to-hand combat, some foot soldiers used spears to knock riders off their horses and to kill an enemy on foot with a powerful thrust.

Samurai's most prized weapons, however, were their swords. Japanese sword makers were excellent craftsmen, and samurai swords were considered the finest in the world. They were flexible enough not to break but hard enough to be razor sharp. Samurai carried one long sword and one short sword, both of which had curved blades.

Wearing a sword was the privilege and right of the samurai, and swords were passed down through generations of warrior families and given as prizes to loyal warriors. Even after peace was established in the 17th century, samurai proudly wore their swords as a sign of their rank.

Military Training and Fighting

The way the first samurai warriors trained and fought was called “The Way of the Horse and the Bow.” Later, the art of swordsmanship became more important than archery.

Military Training

Learning the skills of a samurai required extensive training. Young samurai were apprenticed to archery masters who taught them mental and physical techniques. Samurai practiced until they could shoot accurately without thinking. They also learned to breathe properly and to shoot at their enemies while riding on the back of a galloping horse.

The art of fencing, or swordsmanship, was just as demanding. Samurai had to learn how to force an enemy to make the first move, how to stay out of range of an enemy sword, and how to fight in tight spaces or against multiple opponents. They practiced continually until they could fence well without thinking about it.

Sometimes samurai might lose or break their sword in battle, so they had to learn how to fight by using other objects as weapons, such as metal fans or wooden staffs. They also learned how to fight without weapons by using martial arts. This type of fighting often involves using an opponent's strength against him.

Battle

According to early texts, the samurai had a unique style of battle. First, messengers from opposing sides met to determine the time and place of combat. Then the two armies faced each other a few hundred yards apart. Samurai on both sides shouted out their names, ancestors, heroic deeds, and reason for fighting. Finally, the armies charged at each other, with mounted samurai firing arrows as they urged their horses forward.

As the two armies clashed, samurai fought each other in hand-to-hand combat. Enemies fought a series of one-on-one duels.Samurai found opponents who were matched in rank. They would then try to knock them off their horses, wrestle them to the ground, and kill them.

Training in Writing and Literature

By the more peaceful 17th century, samurai had to be students of culture, as well as fierce warriors. They were expected to be educated in both writing and literature.

Calligraphy

Samurai practiced calligraphy, the art of beautiful writing. A calligrapher's main tools were a brush, a block of ink, and paper or silk. The calligrapher moistened the ink block, rubbed it on an ink stone until the ink reached the right consistency, and then carefully drew each character with the brush.

Poetry

Samurai also wrote poetry. One famous samurai poet was Matsuo Basho, who invented a new form of short poetry that was later called haiku (high-KOO). A haiku has three lines of 5, 7, and 5 syllables, making 17 syllables in all. A haiku poet uses imagery to suggest an idea or create a mood. Basho added to the beauty of haiku by choosing simple words. Here is his most famous haiku:

Furu ike ya An ancient pond

Kawazu tobikumu A frog jumps in

Mizu no oto The splash of water

The Code of Bushido and Samurai Values

The samurai code developed over several centuries. By the 17th century, it took final form in Bushido, “The Way of the Warrior.”

The code of Bushido, like the code of chivalry in medieval Europe, governed a samurai's life. It called on samurai to be honest, fair, and fearless in the face of death, and samurai were expected to value loyalty and personal honor even more than their lives.

Loyalty and Personal Honor

The supreme duty of samurai was to be so loyal to their lord that they would gladly die for him. If their lord were murdered, samurai might avenge his death. A samurai poem says,

Though a time come

when mountains crack

and seas go dry,

never to my lord

will I be found double-hearted!

Samurai were also expected to guard their personal honor. The smallest insult on the street could lead to a duel. One samurai, for example, accidentally knocked his umbrella against another samurai's umbrella. This quickly turned into a quarrel and then a sword fight, resulting in the first samurai's death.

Ritual Suicide

The price for failing to live up to the code of Bushido was seppuku, or ritual suicide. There were many reasons for seppuku, including preserving personal honor and avoiding capture in battle. Samurai might also perform seppuku to pay for a crime, a shameful deed, or an insult to a person of higher rank. Some samurai even killed themselves when their lord died or as a form of protest against an injustice.

Comparing Japan and Europe in the Middle Ages

The Japan of the samurai period was both like and unlike Europe during the Middle Ages. In both societies, ties of loyalty and obligation bound lords and vassals. Both had rulers who rose to power as military chiefs. However, in Europe, a military leader like William the Conqueror ruled as king; whereas in Japan, the shogun ruled in the name of the emperor.

The daimyos of Japan were like the landholding lords of medieval Europe. Both types of lords built castles and held estates that were worked by peasants.

Both the samurai of Japan and the knights of Europe were warriors who wore armor, rode horses, and owned land. Just as European knights had a code of chivalry, the samurai had the code of Bushido. The samurai code, however, was much stricter, because it demanded that a samurai kill himself to maintain his honor.