ISLAM and Africa:

Muhammad, Religion, and Trade

UNIT SUMMARY:

As we move on from the Roman and Byzantine Empires, we will now travel south from Constantinople into the Arabian Peninsula. This is where Muhammad was born and would eventually begin the religion of Islam. Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning its followers only believe in one God. Muslims believe that their prophet Muhammad has the final say on anything related to the worship of God. We will discuss how Islam began and what its basic teachings are.

Far west of the Arabian Peninsula, empires in West Africa had existed for hundreds of years before Muhammad. These were civilizations whose power was rooted in the control of trading around the Niger River and across the Sahara Desert. We will look at the African empires of Ghana and Mali and the importance of trade, including items like salt and gold, and how the religion of Islam ended up influencing the empire of Mali and their leader Mansa Musa.

During this unit you will focus on four different aspects of the Islam and Africa and use the information you gather to help prepare for the unit assessment at the end. Our focus will include:

• Understanding he early life of Muhammad and how he was believed to be called as a prophet by the angel Gabriel.

• Identifying the holy texts and basic beliefs, traditions, and rules of Islam adhered to by followers.

• Understanding the goods traded in West Africa and the role they played in the rise of the empires of Ghana and Mali.

• Explaining how Islam eventually spread into the Ghana and Mali and how the religion affected the culture of the region.

The Origins and Spread of Islam

How did Islam originate and spread?

Introduction

You have learned about several major religions, including Judaism and Christianity. In this unit, you will explore Islam, a religion that emerged in the Middle Ages.

Muhammad, born around 570 C.E., founded and taught the faith called Islam, which became one of the major religions of the world. In the centuries after his death in 632 C.E., Islam spread throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond.

Muhammad's birthplace, Mecca (Makkah), was an ancient place of worship. According to tradition, many centuries before Muhammad was born, God tested the prophet Abraham's faith by ordering him to leave Hagar and their infant son Ishmael in a desolate valley. As Hagar desperately searched for water, a miracle occurred. A spring, which became known as Zamzam, bubbled up at her son's feet. According to Islamic beliefs, Abraham built a house of worship at the site, called the Ka'bah. Over time, people settled near it.

By the time of Muhammad's birth, this settlement, or Mecca, was a prosperous city at the crossroads of great trade routes. Many people came to worship at the Ka'bah. However, instead of honoring one God as Abraham had preached, the worshippers at the Ka'bah honored the many traditional gods whose shrines were there.

According to Islamic teachings, Muhammad was living in Mecca when he experienced his own call to faith. Just as Abraham did, Muhammad proclaimed belief in a single God. At first, Islam was met with resistance in Mecca. But Muhammad and his followers, called Muslims, eventually attracted a great number of followers. Mecca became Islam's most sacred city, and the Ka'bah became a center of Islamic worship. You will learn more about the vast Muslim empire.

Arabia in the 6th Century

Islam has its roots in Arabia, where Muhammad was born. To understand Islam's beginnings, it is important to first look at the time period in which Muhammad grew up.

Many Arabs lived a nomadic life in the desert environment. But some Arabs led a more urban and sedentary lifestyle in towns like Medina. However, there was no central government in Arabia. Instead, Arabs pledged loyalty to their clans and to larger tribes.These tribes sometimes fought each other to capture territory, animals, goods, watering places, and even wives. When someone from one tribe was killed during a raid, his family was honor-bound to avenge that death. This led to long periods of fighting among tribes.

Although Arabs on the peninsula were not united as a nation, they shared cultural ties, especially language. Arabic poetry celebrated the history of the Arab people, the beauty of their land, and their way of life. Poets and singers from different tribes competed at gatherings held at the markets and during pilgrimages. This was the culture into which Muhammad was born.

The town of Mecca, Muhammad's birthplace, was located in a dry, rocky valley in western Arabia. Mecca did not have agriculture, but instead gained wealth as a center of trade. Merchants traveling along caravan routes stopped at the city's market, where they bought spices, sheepskins, dates, and other wares from townspeople and nomads.

By the time Muhammad was born, Mecca was a prosperous city. Merchant families brought goods into Mecca from faraway places, growing wealthy through trade with Yemen (southern Arabia), Syria, and kingdoms in Africa. Over time, a handful of clans, or families, had come to rule the city. These families refused to share their fortune with the weaker, poorer clans who lived there.

Mecca was also a religious center. According to the Qur'an (koor-AHN), the holy book of Islam, Abraham had built the cube-shaped shrine, the Ka'bah, centuries before to honor God. In Muhammad's day, according to Islamic teaching, most Arabs followed polytheism, and the Ka'bah housed hundreds of statues of different gods. Pilgrims from all over Arabia came to worship at Mecca.

The Origins of Islam

Muhammad's Early Life

As you have learned, around 570 C.E., an infant named Muhammad was born in Mecca. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's early life was ordinary. Few people who were not members of his clan, the Hashim, noted his birth. His father had died before his birth, and his clan was not very wealthy. However, the Hashim had some prestige, as they belonged to the leading tribe in Mecca.

Following custom, Muhammad's mother sent her baby to live with a family of nomads in the desert. There, the young boy learned about traditional Arab values, such as being kind to strangers and helping orphans, widows, and other needy members of society.

When Muhammad was about six, he returned to the city and to his mother. They had little time together, because she soon died, so Muhammad was left in the care of his grandfather, a highly regarded leader of the Hashim clan. Upon the grandfather's death, Muhammad's uncle, Abu Talib, a respected merchant, became head of the clan and took charge of the orphan.

As a boy, Muhammad tended his family's flocks of sheep and goats. When he was about 12 years old, he accompanied his uncle on a trading journey far north to Syria, where Muhammad gained his first experiences outside Arabia.

As Muhammad grew up, he took on more duties and made more trading journeys. He became a merchant who enjoyed a reputation throughout Mecca for his honesty. People called him al-Amin, which means “the Trustworthy.”

According to Muslim teachings, Muhammad was still a young man when he began managing caravans for a widow named Khadijah, who ran a trading business. Muhammad earned her great profits. Impressed with his abilities and honesty, Khadijah proposed marriage. Muhammad accepted her offer, and when he was about 25, they married. Muhammad and Khadijah had several children, but only their daughter Fatima had children of her own. She continued the bloodline of Muhammad.

The Call to Prophethood

For the next 15 years, Muhammad made his living as a merchant. In addition to enjoying success in business, he also cared about spiritual matters, often spending time at prayer and meditation in the mountains around Mecca. He was concerned about the effects of wealth and the worship of idols on his city.

In about 610 C.E., Muhammad went to one of his spiritual retreats in a cave in the mountains. There, according to Islamic teachings, Muhammad received the call to be a prophet, or messenger of Allah. Allah is the Arabic word for God. The same word for God, Allah, is used by Arab Jews and Arab Christians.

Muhammad later described the remarkable events of that night. He told of being visited by the angel Gabriel who brought revelations, or revealed teachings, from God. Gabriel also told Muhammad, “You are the messenger of God.”

According to Islamic tradition, at first Muhammad feared that he might be going mad. But Khadijah consoled Muhammad and expressed her faith that God had chosen him as a prophet to spread his words to the people. Khadijah became one of the first converts to Islam.

Islam is based on monotheism, or the belief in a single God. This God, Muhammad taught, was the same God of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. Through Gabriel, God instructed Muhammad to teach others to practice compassion, honesty, and justice.

Muslim tradition teaches that the angel Gabriel continued to bring God's messages for about the next 20 years. At first, Muhammad confided these messages only to family and friends, including his cousin Ali and his close friend, Abu Bakr (ah-BOOH BAHK-uhr). Gradually, a small group of followers developed at Mecca. They were called Muslims, which means “those who surrender to God.” For Muslims, Islam was a way of life and the basis for creating a just society.

Though Muhammad apparently could neither read nor write, he said that the messages from Gabriel were imprinted on his mind and heart. His followers also memorized them, and eventually some even wrote down these words and collected them in the Qur'an (also spelled Koran), the holy book of Islam. The poetic style of this book helped lend credibility to Muhammad's claim that it contained the words of God. It also attracted new believers to Islam.

Islamic Texts and Practices

The Qur'an and the Sunnah

Two foundations of Islam are the Qur'an and the Sunnah. According to Muslim teachings, God describes his laws and moral teachings, or the “straight path,” through the Qur'an. Regarded as the direct word of God, the book holds a central position for Muslims everywhere, and even inspires Muslim art, poetry, and literature.

The Qur'an contains passages that Muslims believe Muhammad received from the angel Gabriel. Muhammad and his followers recited and memorized these verses. Because Muhammad apparently could not read or write, scribes wrote down these passages. The Arabic of the Qur'an is notable for its beauty.

In about 651 C.E., Caliph Uthman established an official edition of the Qur'an. He asked those with different versions of the Qur'an to destroy them so that there would be no confusion between those and the official edition. The Qur'an used today has remained largely unchanged since then.

Muhammad described the Qur'an as God's “standing miracle.” Muslims honor the spoken and written Qur'an. Most Muslims today do not let copies of the sacred book touch the ground, and they handle the Qur'an in special ways. Most Muslims memorize at least certain parts of the Qur'an in Arabic, and some even memorize the entire book. The memorized parts may be recited in daily prayer or during special occasions. Its verses accompany Muslims throughout their lives, from birth to death.

The Sunnah (“practice”) is the example that Muhammad set for Muslims during his lifetime. What Muhammad did or said in a certain situation has set a precedent, or guideline, for all Muslims. For instance, Muhammad told his followers to make sure that their guests never left the table hungry, underscoring the importance of hospitality. He also reminded children to honor their parents when he said, “God forbids all of you to disobey your mothers.” For Muslims, the Sunnah is second only to the Qur'an in religious authority.

About 300 years after Muhammad's death, thousands of reports about the prophet had spread throughout Muslim lands. Called hadith (“reports” or “tradition”), these accounts provided written evidence of Muhammad's Sunnah through his own words and deeds. Scholars looked into each story and organized the ones that they could verify into collections. These collections remain important sources for Muslim beliefs, laws, and history.

The most basic acts of worship for Muslims are called the Five Pillars of Islam. The Qur'an provides general commands to perform these five duties, whereas the Sunnah explains how to perform them, based on Muhammad's example. Let's look next at each of the Five Pillars.

The Five Pillars of Islam

The First Pillar: Shahadah

The first Pillar of Islam is shahadah (shah-HAH-dah), the profession or declaration of faith. To show belief in one God and in Muhammad's prophethood, a Muslim testifies, “I bear witness that there is no god but God, and that Muhammad is the messenger of God.”

The first part of the shahadah affirms monotheism — “There is no god but God.” Like Christians and Jews, Muslims believe that one all-powerful God — called Allah in Arabic — created the universe. They believe that the truth of that God was revealed to humankind through many prophets, including Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, who appear in either the Jewish or Christian scriptures. The Qur'an honors all of these prophets.

The second part of the shahadah identifies Muhammad as God's messenger — “and Muhammad is the messenger of God.” According to this statement, Muhammad announced the message of Islam, which Muslims believe to be God's final word to humankind.

The meaning of shahadah is that people not only believe in God, but also pledge their submission to him. For Muslims, God is the center of life. To enter into the religion of Islam, a person must pronounce the shahadah aloud in the presence of two Muslim witnesses. It is also part of the call to prayer, which is regularly recited in mosques (MOSKS) and part of certain traditions.

Beyond the shahadah, some Muslims also believe in the idea of an unseen world of angels and other beings. According to their faith, God created angels to do his work throughout the universe. Some angels reveal themselves to prophets, as Gabriel did to Muhammad. Other angels observe and record the deeds of each human being. Belief in angels is found in Christianity and Judaism, as well.

Muslims also believe that all souls will face a day of judgment. On that day, God will weigh each person's actions. Those who have believed in God and lived according to his rules will be rewarded with paradise.

The Second Pillar: Salat

The second Pillar of Islam is salat (SAH-laht), daily ritual prayer. Muhammad said that “prayer is the proof” of Islam. Salat emphasizes religious discipline, spirituality, and closeness to God.

Throughout Muslim communities, people are called to prayer five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and after nightfall. A crier, called a muezzin (moo-EHZ-en), chants the call to prayer, sometimes through a loudspeaker, from the tall minaret (tower) of the community's mosque.

Before praying, Muslims must perform ritual washings. All mosques have fresh, flowing water in which worshipers wash their hands, face, arms, and feet. With a sense of being purified, Muslims enter the prayer area where they form lines behind a prayer leader called an imam. The worshipers face the qiblah (KIB-lah), the direction of the Ka'bah, which is marked by a niche in a wall. People of all classes stand shoulder to shoulder, but men stand in separate rows from women.

The imam begins the prayer cycle by proclaiming “Allahu akbar!” (“God is greater!”). The worshipers then recite verses from the Qur'an and kneel before God.

While praying at a mosque is preferable, Muslims may worship anywhere. In groups or by themselves, they may perform their prayers at home, at work, in airports, in parks, or on sidewalks. A qiblah compass may help them locate the direction of the Ka'bah.Some Muslims carry a prayer rug to have a clean spot on which pray. Some use prayer beads for additional worship and recite words describing what they believe to be God's many characteristics.

Unlike Christians and Jews, Muslims do not observe a sabbath, or day of rest. On Fridays, however, Muslims gather at a mosque for midday congregational prayer. The worshipers listen to a Qur'an reading and the sermon. After saying prayers together, some return to their regular business. For others, Friday is a special day when people meet with family and friends.

The Third Pillar: Zakat

The third Pillar of Islam is zakat, or charity. The Qur'an says wealthy people should share their riches with the less fortunate, a practice that remains a basic part of Islam.

The word zakat means “purification.” Muslims believe that wealth becomes pure by giving some of it away, and that sharing wealth helps control greed. Zakat also reminds people of God's great gifts to them.

According to the teachings of Islam, Muslims must share about one-fortieth (2.5 percent) of their surplus wealth each year with their poorer neighbors. They are encouraged to give even more.Individuals decide the proper amount to pay. Then they may either give this sum to a religious official or distribute it themselves.

Zakat helps provide for many needs. In medieval times, zakat often went to constructing public fountains, so everyone had clean water to drink, or to inns so that pilgrims and travelers had a place to sleep. If you walk down a busy street in any Muslim town today, you will see the effects of zakat everywhere. Zakat pays for soup kitchens, clothing, and shelter for the poor. It supports the building and running of orphanages and hospitals. Poorer Muslims may receive funds to pay off their debts. Zakat provides aid to stranded travelers.

Zakat also helps other good causes that serve the Muslim community. For instance, it can cover the school fees of children whose parents cannot afford to send them to schools. It can be used to pay teachers.

Zakat is similar to charitable giving in other religions. For instance, Jews ask for charitable giving and actions to help the needy and the community, a concept called tzedakah (TZE-DAH-KAH), meaning justice and fairness. Christians also ask for donations, called tithes (TYTHZ), to support their houses of worship and charitable activities.

The Fourth Pillar: Siyam

The fourth Pillar of Islam is siyam (see-YAM), or fasting (going without food). Muslims were not the first people to fast as a way of worshipping God. The Bible praises the act. But the Qur'an instructs Muslims to fast for an entire month during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar.

During Ramadan, Muslims fast from daybreak to the setting of the sun. Pregnant women, travelers, the sick, the elderly, and young children do not have to fast.

According to Islamic teachings, Ramadan was the month when God first revealed his message to Muhammad. Muslims use a lunar calendar (one based on the phases of the moon). A year on this calendar is shorter than a 365-day year. As a result, over time, Ramadan cycles through all the seasons of a standard year.

During the daylight hours of each day during the month of Ramadan, Muslims do not eat any food or drink any liquid, including water. At sunset, Muslims then break their fast, often with dates — as Muhammad usually did — and other food and beverages. They then perform the sunset prayer. After a meal shared with family or friends, Muslims attend special prayer services in which a portion of the Qur'an is read aloud each night. By the end of Ramadan, devout Muslims who attended mosque regularly would have heard the entire holy book.

The holy month of Ramadan encourages generosity, equality, and charity within the Muslim community. Fasting teaches Muslims self-control and leads them to a deeper understanding of hunger and poverty. Well-to-do Muslims and mosques often provide food for others. During Ramadan, Muslims also strive to forgive people, give thanks, and avoid gossip, arguments, and bad deeds.

Toward the end of Ramadan, Muslims remember Gabriel's first visit to Muhammad. It is supposed to have occurred during one of the last ten odd-numbered nights of the month. Worshippers seek out this night because, according to the Qur'an, prayer during this “night of power” is equal to a thousand months of devotion. A celebration called Eid al-Fitr (eed-AL-fitter) takes place when Ramadan ends. People attend prayers, wear new clothes, decorate their homes, and prepare special foods. They visit friends and family, exchange gifts, and give to the poor.

The Fifth Pillar: Hajj

The fifth Pillar of Islam is hajj (HAJZH), the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. In the twelfth month of the Islamic year, millions of believers from all over the world come together at Mecca. All adult Muslims who are financially and physically able to make the journey are expected to perform the hajj at least once during their lifetime. By bringing Muslims from many places and cultures together, the hajj promotes fellowship and equality.

In Mecca, pilgrims follow what Muslims believe are the footsteps of Abraham and Muhammad, and so draw closer to God. For five days, they dress in simple white clothing and perform a series of rituals, moving from one sacred site to another.

Upon arrival, Muslims announce their presence with these words: “Here I am, O God, at Thy command!” They go to the Great Mosque, which houses the Ka'bah. Muslims believe that Abraham built the Ka'bah as a shrine to honor God. The pilgrims circle the Ka'bah seven times, which is a ritual mentioned in the Qur'an. Next, they run along a passage between two small hills, as Hagar did when she searched for water for her baby Ishmael. The pilgrims drink from the Zamzam spring, which is believed to have appeared miraculously at Ishmael's feet.

Later, pilgrims leave Mecca to sleep in tents at a place called Mina. In the morning, they move to the Plain of Arafat to pray until sunset, asking God's forgiveness. Some climb Mount Arafat, where Muhammad preached his Last Sermon. After spending another night camped in the desert, they reject evil by casting stones at pillars representing Satan.

Afterward, pilgrims may celebrate with a four-day feast. In honor of Abraham's ancient sacrifice, as recounted in religious scriptures, Muslims sacrifice animals, typically sheep or goats, and share the meat with family, friends, and the poor. Then, having completed the hajj, they dress again in their own clothes. Before leaving Mecca, each pilgrim circles the Ka'bah seven more times. Muslims around the world celebrate this “farewell” day as Eid al-Adha (eed-AL-adh-hah).

Early Societies in West Africa

People have lived in West Africa for tens of thousands of years. For most of this time, historians do not have written records to study. Muslim scholars first began writing about the kingdom of Ghana in the 800s. By then, Ghana was perhaps 300 years old, and possibly much older. How did the first kingdoms arise? Why did they develop where they did?

To answer questions like these, historians and archaeologists study many kinds of clues. For example, they look closely at geography. Natural features, such as rivers and vegetation, help explain why people chose to settle where they did and what kind of life they created for themselves.

Additionally, scholars try to understand evidence from ancient settlements. How were villages and towns laid out? What can this reveal about life there?

Items left by earlier cultures also provide helpful clues about the past. Iron farming tools, for example, show that agricultural methods improved in West Africa. Scholars have worked to understand how more efficient farming affected the growth of towns and cities. Gradually, scholars have pieced together a picture of how complex societies developed in West Africa.

Between about 500 and 1600 C.E., three kingdoms arose in West Africa: Ghana, Songhai, and Mali. In this lesson, you will explore current thinking about the origins of West African kingdoms. You will discover how early family-based communities developed into villages. You will also learn how some villages were able to expand into towns and cities. Finally, you will see how some cities became great kingdoms.

Ghana: A West African Trading Empire

To what extent did trans-Saharan trade lead to Ghana's wealth and success?

Introduction

The early West African societies of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai all created empires that gained much of their wealth from trade. As you explore Ghana, you will learn more about the role of trade in the first of West Africa's empires.

The kingdom of Ghana lasted from sometime before 500 C.E. until its final collapse in the 1200s. It arose in the semidesert Sahel and eventually spread over the valley between the Senegal and Niger rivers. To the south was forest, and to the north lay the Sahara. Today, this region is part of modern nations Mali and Mauritania (maw-reh-TAIN-ee-uh). The modern country of Ghana takes its name from the old kingdom, but it is located far to the south.

The earliest writings about the kingdom of Ghana come from Arab scholars. These scholars recorded information they had gathered from travelers to the kingdom. By the time they began writing about Ghana in the 9th century, it was already a flourishing empire.

Historians are unsure of exactly how Ghana developed into an empire. Possibly, a group of warriors used iron weapons to defeat their neighbors. In fact, the word ghana means “war chief.” However, archaeologists have concluded that control of trade, particularly the gold trade, made the king of Ghana and his people very wealthy. West Africans still sing songs about the majesty of ancient Ghana.

Trade: The Source of Ghana's Wealth

Ghana was located between two areas that wanted to trade — North Africa and West Africa. Traders from North Africa crossed the Sahara with salt, copper, and cowrie shells — a type of seashell that was used as money. The merchants traded these and other goods for kola nuts, hides, leather goods, ivory, slaves, and gold from the southern forests of West Africa. Then they returned to North Africa, bringing the goods from the south to markets at home.

Ghana's location enabled it to control this trans-Saharan trade. Traders traveling to and from the south had to pass through Ghana, paying heavy taxes on their goods each time. These taxes helped make Ghana rich.

The History of Trans-Saharan Trade

Trans-Saharan trade has a long history. Archaeologists have found evidence that North Africans brought back gold from the southern forests of West Africa as long ago as 400 to 500 B.C.E. Travel across the Sahara, however, was especially challenging for these early peoples.

Centuries later, two factors contributed to the growth of trans-Saharan trade. The first was the introduction of the camel to the Sahara, and the second was the spread of Islam.

Arab traders first brought camels to the Sahara around 300 C.E. These animals are well suited for desert travel. A camel can drink up to 25 gallons of water at a time, allowing it to travel several days in the desert without stopping. Additionally, camels have double rows of eyelashes and hairy ear openings that help keep out blowing sand.

The introduction of camels allowed traders to establish caravan routes across the Sahara. By the 4th century C.E., large amounts of gold were being made into Roman coins in North Africa. It is likely that that gold came from West Africa.

Trade continued to expand because of the spread of Islam. In the 7th century, Muslims invaded Ghana's empire. Besides wanting to convert West Africans to Islam, Muslims hoped to control trade in West Africa. Although Ghana turned back the invaders, many Muslims settled in West African towns and became merchants.

Control of the trans-Saharan trade made Ghana wealthy and powerful. By the year 1000, Ghana's empire dominated the trade routes between North and West Africa.

The Journey South

The traders who traveled to West Africa faced a long, difficult journey. The trans-Saharan caravan routes began in North Africa along the northwestern border of the Sahara. From there they stretched across the desert, passed through Ghana, and continued south to the Gulf of Guinea and east to present-day Chad.

In 1352, a Muslim historian and traveler named Ibn Battuta (ibehn bat-TOO-tah) crossed the Sahara with a trade caravan. Battuta's account of his trip describes what the traders' journeys were like.

Battuta's caravan started at the oasis city of Sijilmasa (see-jeel-MAH-sah), on the northern edge of the Sahara, in the foothills of the Atlas Mountains. Donkeys carried goods from Europe, Arabia, and Egypt to Sijilmasa from the Mediterranean coast. Then camel caravans took the goods south.

Battuta and his caravan stayed in Sijilmasa for a few months, waiting for the rainy season to end. When the watering places were full and there was grass for the animals to eat, the traders embarked on their journey and traveled from oasis to oasis. Each day, the traders walked until the afternoon, when the sun was high in the sky.Then they rested until sunset.

Walking across the Sahara was challenging and dangerous. Caravans sometimes lost their way, and some traders died in the desert. During one stretch of Battuta's trip, the travelers could not find water, so they slaughtered some of their camels and drank the water stored in the animals' stomachs.

On its way through the desert, the caravan stopped at Taghaza, a village where salt mines were located, and took on a load of salt. When the traders reached the town of Walata, at the edge of the desert, they transferred their salt and other goods from the camels to donkeys and to porters, people who carry goods for a living. Then they continued south, passing through Ghana on their way to markets on the Gulf of Guinea, near the southern forests. The entire journey took about two months.

The Decline of Ghana and the Rise of Mali

Ghana's empire reached its height around the year 1000 C.E.However, war and the loss of natural resources led to the West African empire's downfall, and the rise of a new power.

In the second half of the 11th century, Muslim warriors known as Almoravids began attacking Ghana's empire. In 1076, they captured the capital city of Kumbi. Although Ghana's king regained power in 1087, the old empire had already broken apart.

The loss of natural resources further weakened Ghana. The increasing population added great stress on scarce resources, such as trees and water. Trees were cut down to provide charcoal for iron-smelting furnaces. Water became so scarce that farmers could no longer cultivate crops and keep flocks. People were forced to leave in search of better conditions. The empire came to an end in 1203, when a rival kingdom conquered Kumbi.

The end of Ghana's empire opened the way to the rise of a new power, Mali. Around 1240, a group of West Africans called the Mande conquered Kumbi. Their homeland of Mali was south of Kumbi, closer to the Niger River. The Mande built an empire that reached from the Atlantic Ocean to beyond the Niger River, and from the southern forest to the salt and copper mines of the Sahara.

Similar to Ghana, Mali gained much of its wealth from the control of trade, particularly in gold. Its leaders had accepted Islam, and under their rule, the Muslim faith continued to become even more influential in West Africa.

The Influence of Islam on West Africa

Introduction

The Islamic faith and culture had a great impact on the early empires that developed in West Africa, such as Ghana. Islam also influenced the West African people and culture in many different areas of life.

During the 7th century, the religion of Islam spread quickly through the Middle East and North Africa. In the 8th century, trans-Saharan trade brought Muslim merchants and traders to West Africa. Over the next few hundred years, Islam spread throughout the region — first to Ghana, and then to other areas. The new faith left a lasting impression on the culture of West Africa. It changed the way people there lived, worked, and communicated. For example, many West Africans learned Arabic to study the Qu'ran.

The people of West Africa often blended Islamic culture with their own local traditions. For example, West Africans who became Muslims began praying to God in Arabic and building mosques as places of worship. However, they also continued to pray to the spirits of their ancestors, upholding a tradition that had been in place for centuries.

Islamic beliefs and customs affected many areas of life besides religious faith. In this lesson, you will learn about what brought Islam to West Africa and how it spread. Then you will take a detailed look at Islam's influence on several aspects of West African culture.Additionally, you will explore changes in religious practices, government and law, language, and architecture. The effects and influences of these changes in West Africa are still visible throughout this region today.

The Spread of Islam in West Africa

Trans-Saharan trade brought Islam to West Africa in the 8th century. Initially, Muslim traders and merchants lived alongside the non-Muslims of West Africa. Over time, however, Islam played a growing role in West African society.

Traders Bring Islam to Ghana

Between the years 639 and 708 C.E., Arab Muslims conquered North Africa, and before long, they wanted to bring West Africa into the Islamic world. But sending armies to conquer Ghana was not practical since Ghana was too far away and protected by the Sahara.

Islam first reached Ghana through Muslim traders and missionaries. The king of Ghana did not convert to Islam, nor did the majority of the people. However, the king did allow Muslims to establish settlements within his empire.

Many Muslim merchants and traders settled in Kumbi, the great market city of Ghana. Over time, a thriving Muslim community developed around the trans-Saharan trade with North Africa. The Muslims in Kumbi had 12 mosques and their own imam (spiritual leader). Scholars studied the Qur'an.

In the 11th century, Muslims from the north, the Almoravids, invaded West Africa. In 1076, they captured Kumbi. The Almoravids did not retain power for long in Ghana, but under their rule Islam became more widespread.

Islam in Mali

To the south of Ghana, the Mande also accepted Islam. Muslims showed tolerance toward traditional religious practices, which helped Islam to spread. For example, West Africans continued to pray to the spirits of their ancestors.

In about 1240, the Mande conquered Kumbi. They took control of the trade routes to North Africa and built the empire of Mali.

As in many other cultures, the early leaders of Mali accepted Islam in their own way and chose to follow specific teachings. In 1312, a new leader, Mansa Musa, took over in Mali and became the first West African ruler to practice Islam devoutly.

Under Mansa Musa's rule, Mali became a major crossroads of the Islamic world. Muslim merchants, traders, and scholars from Egypt and North Africa came to Mali to conduct business or to settle.

Like other Muslims, Musa made a hajj, or pilgrimage, to the sacred city of Mecca in Arabia. The hajj was an enormous undertaking, covering some 3,000 miles. Officials and servants started preparing for the trip months before Musa left. As many as 80,000 people may have accompanied Musa on the hajj.

Musa reached Cairo, Egypt, in July 1324, after eight months of travel. A writer from Cairo described Musa's caravan as “a lavish display of power, wealth, and unprecedented by its size and pageantry.” Ahead of Musa arrived 500 slaves, each carrying a gold staff. He was followed by a caravan of up to 100 camels carrying 30,000 pounds of gold, along with food, clothing, and supplies.

In Cairo, Musa met the local sultan, or ruler. When Musa was asked to kneel before the sultan, he felt insulted since he was very proud of being the ruler of Mali. After Musa finally agreed to kneel, the sultan invited him to sit beside him as his equal.

After leaving Cairo, Musa traveled to Arabia to visit Mecca and Medina. When word spread that the king of Mali was visiting, people lined the streets to see him. Musa's wealth impressed the people and rulers of Arabia. He paid in gold for all the goods and services he received and gave expensive gifts to his hosts.

Because of Musa's hajj, Mali became known as an important kingdom. By 1375, Mali appeared on a European map of West Africa.

Islam in Songhai

One of the groups within Mali's empire was the Songhai people. In the 1460s, the great warrior Sunni Ali became the new ruler of the Songhai. He created a powerful army that enabled the Songhai to break away from Mali and, eventually, to conquer it.

The early Songhai rulers did not practice Islam as strictly. In the 1490s, Muslims in the Songhai empire rebelled. They placed Askia Mohammed Toure, a devout Muslim, on the throne. Toure established and enforced rigid controls to make sure Islam was practiced as he felt was proper. Additionally, he led a series of wars to convert non-Muslims to Islam. Under his rule, the Songhai empire covered a territory about as large as western Europe.

Religious Practices

As Islam spread in West Africa, the people adopted new religious practices in addition to ethical values, and learned the Five Pillars of Islam. They prayed in Arabic, fasted, worshipped in mosques, made pilgrimages, and gave alms. They were taught to regard themselves and all other Muslims as part of a single community.

West Africans also began to celebrate Muslim religious festivals. The festival of Eid al-Fitr marks the end of the holy month called Ramadan. A second festival called Eid al-Adha commemorates a significant event in the story of the prophet Abraham. According to the story, God asked Abraham to sacrifice his son as a test of faith, and after Abraham proved his faith through his willingness to offer his son to God, God spared the boy.

Alongside these new customs, West Africans preserved some of their old religious practices. Muslim leaders allowed them to continue religious traditions as long as they did not contradict the Five Pillars of Islam. So, for example, West African Muslims continued to demonstrate respect for the spirits of dead ancestors.They retained their belief in spirits who could help those who prayed to them or made sacrifices to them. They used amulets, or charms, that they believed helped people or protected them from harm.

Ibn Battuta was an Arab who traveled to Mali in the 14th century. Some local customs there upset Battuta. For instance, women, including the daughters of rulers, went unclothed in public. These customs disturbed him because they contradicted the teachings of Islam.

Regardless, Battuta was impressed by how devoted West Africans were to Islam and noted, “Anyone who is late at the mosque will find nowhere to pray, the crowd is so great. They zealously learn the Qur'an by heart. Those children who are neglectful in this, are put in chains until they have memorized the Qur'an.”

Government and Law

The arrival of Islam and Arabic to Africa paved the way for other changes as well, especially to government and law. One major change concerned the line of succession, or inheritance of the right to rule. In West Africa, the succession had traditionally been matrilineal, meaning the right to rule was traced through the mother or female relative, rather than the father or a male relative. For example, in Ghana the son of the king's sister inherited the throne. After the arrival of Islam, succession became patrilineal, so the right to rule now passed from father to son.

A second change affected the structure of government. After West African kings converted to Islam, they started to exercise more control over local rulers. The kings also adopted titles used in Muslim lands. Often, the head of a region was called the sultan, the amir, or emir. Amir and emir are shortened forms of Amir al-Muminin, an Arabic expression meaning “Commander of the Faithful.”

A third major change was the adoption of shari'ah. In many towns and cities, shari'ah replaced the customary law of West Africa, which was very different. Although laws were not written, everyone understood what they were and accepted them from long tradition. A chief or king usually enforced customary law but did not give physical punishments. Instead, the guilty party paid the injured party with gifts or services. The family or clan of the guilty person could also be punished.

One example of customary law was “trial by wood.” Suppose a man was accused of not paying debts or of injuring another person.The accused man was forced to drink water that had been poured over sour, bitter wood. If the man became ill, he was believed to be innocent.

Unlike customary law, shari'ah is written law. Muslims believe that shari'ah came from God. Judges called qadis administered shari'ah. The qadis hear cases in a court, listen to witnesses, and rule on the basis of the law and the evidence.

The Arabic Language

Islam is rooted in Arab culture, so as Islam spread throughout West Africa, the Arabic language did, as well. In West Africa, Arabic became the language of religion, learning, commerce, and government. However, West Africans continued to use their native languages in everyday speech.

For Muslims, Arabic was the language of religion. The Qur'an, of course, was written in Arabic. All Muslims were expected to read the Qur'an and memorize parts of it, so as West Africans converted to Islam, more and more of them learned Arabic.

Arabic also became the language of learning since the scholars who came to West Africa were mainly Arabic-speaking Muslims. Some of their students became scholars themselves and, like their teachers, they read and wrote Arabic.

Scholars used Arabic to write about the history and culture of West Africa, and they wrote about a wide variety of topics. They described how people used animal and plant parts and minerals to cure diseases. They discussed ethical behavior for business and government. They told how to use the stars to determine the seasons. They recorded the history of the Songhai. They also wrote about Islamic law. These writings are an invaluable source of knowledge about West Africa in this period.

Finally, Arabic became the language of trade and government. Arabic allowed West African traders who spoke different native languages to communicate more easily, and enabled rulers to keep records and to write to rulers in other countries.

Islamic Architectural Styles

The influence of Islam brought new styles of architecture to West Africa as well. People designed mosques for worship. They also created a new design for homes.

Traditionally, West Africans had erected small shrines to honor the forces of nature. However, as they converted to Islam, they began to build mosques. The materials that were most available on the savanna were mud and wood, so West Africans used these materials to build mosques that blended Islamic architectural styles with their own traditional religious art. For example, the minaret (tower) of one mosque was designed to resemble the symbol of a Songhai ancestor.

After his pilgrimage to Mecca, the Mali ruler Mansa Musa wanted to construct more mosques. He convinced Al-Saheli, an architect from Spain, to return to Mali with him. Al-Saheli built several structures in Mali, one of which is the most famous mosque in West Africa, Djingareyber (jin-gar-AY-ber). Located in the city of Timbuktu, Djingareyber was built out of limestone and earth mixed with straw and wood. Projecting from the walls of the mosque are beams, which workers used as scaffolding when the building needed to be repaired.

Additionally, it is believed Al-Saheli introduced a new design for houses. Most traditional houses in West Africa were round with cone shaped, thatched roofs. Using what may have been Al-Saheli's design, architects created rectangular houses out of brick with flat roofs, very plain outside walls, and no windows. Only a single wooden door, decorated with a geometric design, interrupted the rows of bricks.