cover

—Prefixes, roots, and suffixes are word elements.

—The MAGNI word-element set contains word elements MAGNI, MAGNUS, MAGNA, MAGNUM, MAGN, and MAGNO, each meaning great. The MAGNI word-element set comes from Latin.

—Mnemonic (pronounced nee·MON·ik) means aiding memory. The rhyme "i before e except after c" is a mnemonic spelling helper.

—Pieces is a 100% vertically scrolling ebook equivalent to about 6000 paper pages.

—Pieces is for everyone from sixth graders to the highly educated.

—XX,000 will be replaced with the real number when Pieces is finished.

—A companion crossword-puzzle book is introduced at this webpage's bottom.

ebook's status: After more than 30 years in the making, Pieces should be available in 2025.

Pieces posters are shown near this webpage's bottom and are available for purchase.

———— E X C E R P T S ————

INTRODUCTION

PIECES.

The ebook you are now reading has the main title Pieces and the subtitle 19,000 Greek, Latin, and Latinized Word-Element Sets Used in English and Science with 400 Key Sets Taught Using 400 Mnemonic Cartoons and with XX,000 Species Scientific Names Explained and with Pertinent History.

Pieces has three sections:

• Section 1: Introduction

• Section 2: A-to-Z

• Section 3: Greek, Latin, and English History

Pieces is for the person who wants to:

• improve his or her English and science vocabularies by learning Greek-based and Latin-based prefixes, roots, and suffixes

• learn about Greek and Latin words on which most English and scientific words have been and continue to be developed

• enjoy 400 memory-aiding cartoons

• learn the history of English and scientific words

• learn the meanings of confusing species scientific names, most of which contain Greek-based and Latin-based prefixes, roots, and suffixes

• have a very large reference (equivalent to about 6000 paper pages) that covers a great number of topics and Greek, Latin, and English words

Pieces covers a great number of pieces of information:

• Prefixes, roots, suffixes. Prefixes, roots, suffixes, and certain other word pieces are called word elements. Pieces deals with Greek-derived and Latin-derived prefixes, roots, and suffixes that are used in English words and scientific words. Pieces also deals with certain prefixes, roots, and suffixes [1] that are from certain words of many languages, from many people names, and from many place names and [2] that have been Latinized for use in species scientific names.

• Mnemonic cartoons. Pieces has 400 mnemonic cartoons that help you remember the meanings of 400 of the most common sets of prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

• English vocabulary words. English vocabulary words are made of prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

• Scientific words. Scientific words are made of prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

• Species of organisms. Species of organisms are given species scientific names using Greek and Latin words and word elements and using Latinized words and word elements derived from millions of pieces of human existence, knowledge, places, and languages throughout the world. Pieces covers all types of past and present organisms. Explaining scientific names for bacteria, algae, mites, sewer gnats, and extinct snails is as important as explaining scientific names for orchids, eagles, angelfishes, apes, and dinosaurs.

• Pictures. Pieces includes an abundant use of pictures showing details that text cannot easily or fully describe. Pictures show the liberties biologists take in naming certain creature features: a certain stem is called a foot, a certain patch of head feathers is called a crown, a certain fin is called a wing, a certain flower petal is called a lip, a certain spot is called an eye, and so on.

• Etymologies. Pieces gives etymologies that show the origins and histories of words and word elements.

• Meanings. Pieces gives the meanings of sample words. Pieces gives the meanings of species scientific names; etymologies are enlightening but often an etymology does not tell why a biologist gave a certain species a certain species scientific name. It is enlightening to know that part of a grasshopper’s scientific name is from the Latin word for “narrow,” but what part of this grasshopper is narrow? What is the meaning of “narrow” as it pertains to this grasshopper? Surprisingly, many biologists do not give etymologies and meanings of the species scientific names they create. Not surprisingly, this causes widespread confusion.

• Letters in the Greek alphabet and the Latin/English alphabet. Greek letter α is called alpha and is transliterated into Latin/English letter a. Greek letter β is called beta and is transliterated into Latin/English letter b. And so on. Pieces frequently shows a Greek word beside Latin and English derivative words. Over 2000 years ago ancient Greek θεατρον, which means theater, was transliterated by ancient Romans into Latin theatron. Ancient Romans further transliterated theatron into Latin theatrum, which also means theater. British English theatre and American English theater are from Latin theatrum.

• Inflections. “They walk,” “they walked”; suffix -ed is an English inflection. English is a slightly inflected language, meaning English has a low number of inflections. Greek and Latin are heavily inflected languages, meaning Greek and Latin have a high number of inflections. Pieces explains many Greek and Latin inflections, especially those used in species scientific names.

• Mythological tidbits. Many species scientific names are named after ancient Greek and ancient Roman mythological characters.

• People names and places names used in species scientific names.

• Biographies. Pieces gives thousands of minimum biographies that show how people in history and science fit in the story of English vocabulary words and scientific words. The typical minimum biography gives a person’s first and middle and last names, birth year and death year (or other time-establishing information, such as “PhD 1968” or “published between at least 1986 and 2019”), nationality, gender, and specialty (lepidopterist, ornithologist, orchidologist, beetle collector).

• Historical facts. Historical facts are sprinkled throughout Pieces. The last section of Pieces is a chronology of the development of Greek, Latin, and English.

• Maps. I give webpages that show maps of places where species were first discovered. In the last section of Pieces, I match time points in the chronology of the development of Greek, Latin, and English with maps.

• Atoms and molecules. Pieces of chemistry occur here and there.

• Clarifications. Pieces clarifies much of the confusion pertaining to species scientific names. The main reasons for this confusion are:

biology’s weak effort to record and pass along etymologies and meanings of species scientific names named through the centuries (English etymology means word history. You belong to the animal species Homo sapiens. The etymology of species scientific name Homo sapiens is “Latin homo, human + Latin sapiens, wise,” meaning wise human.);

biology’s frequent use of weak, imprecise, strange, and unexplained species scientific names (Biologists always explain species in ways other biologists can understand. But biologists often do not explain or do not adequately explain the names they give species.);

biology’s frequent naming of species after people last names (epithet taylori is named after Taylor, whoever Taylor is) and after mythological characters instead of species features, species diets, species behaviors, and species habitats;

biology’s weak effort to explain how species scientific names are constructed;

biology’s weak effort to explain how species scientific names are connected to respective species;

biology’s weak effort to make it simple, fast, and easy to electronically search for confusion-free etymologies and meanings in biology’s ocean of information; 

biology’s weak effort to pinpoint locations where species are first found and other key locations with maps and, especially, with pairs of Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates; 

biology’s failure to fully and clearly explain every species scientific name;

biology’s failure to establish a single resource giving the etymology and meaning of every species scientific name; and

biology’s heavy use of troublesome, undefined, confusion-causing abbreviations.

• Proposals. I propose ways to improve biology’s current species-naming-and-classifying system. 

… (Unless indicated otherwise, on this webpage an ellipsis […] indicates omitted content.)

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS.

G = Greek

L = Latin

NewL = New Latin

Ld = Latinized

… 

SOME TERMS AND CONVENTIONS.

• I, me, my. Except as indicated otherwise (as when I quote a phrase or when I make up an example phrase), I and me and my refer to United States architect, writer, lexicographer, and cartoonist Ernest Newell Spencer (1949-), the author of Pieces.  Sometimes instead of “I”, I write “I, Ernest Newell Spencer” to remind you who “I” is.

Outside of Pieces, I usually go by the nickname Ernie.

Ernest Newell Spencer

• A word element is any prefix, root, suffix, infix, or other morpheme. A word element is also called an element. In Pieces, I use only “word element” to mean word element. In Pieces, I use “element” to mean chemical element.         

• A-to-Z, which takes up all of Section 2, is a very long alphabetical list containing word elements and their corresponding English words, English words and their corresponding word elements, cross-references, definitions, and other such content. A-to-Z serves as a Greek-or-Latin-to-English dictionary and as an English-to-Greek-or-Latin dictionary. A-to-Z explains the etymologies and meanings of a vast number of word elements used in English words and in scientific terms.

• A-to-Z’s first subsection is “A-to-Z Conventions,” After “A-to-Z Conventions,” each A-to-Z entry starts with one of six colored tabs. The six colored tabs are explained in “A-to-Z Conventions.” The six colored tabs are: 

██, ██, ██, ██, ██, and ██

• A-to-Z includes 400 mnemonic cartoons, each on its own mnemonic-cartoon page. Mnemonic means memory-aiding. A mnemonic cartoon is a pleasant way to learn the word-element set that goes with that mnemonic cartoon. The 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages generally contain the most common word elements and the deepest vocabulary studies. I advise beginners to first concentrate on the 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages. To view the 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages one at a time, use your ebook reader’s Find box to search on “a mnemonic-cartoon page” or “mnemonic cartoon:”. You can also click on “A1 page,” “AB1 page,” “ACRO page,” “ACU page,” and so on in your ebook reader’s Table of Contents.

• “Page” in “mnemonic-cartoon page” or “A1 page” or such is not a traditional page. This “page” is just a certain kind of entry, a red-tab entry in A-to-Z’s alphabetical list. Pieces has no traditional pages and has no page numbers. Pieces is a 100 percent vertically scrollable ebook. 

In Pieces, I often give a quote from a document outside Pieces and I give the quote’s respective page number in that document. For example, I write “In his description of genus Lucerocoris, which is on page 281 in archive.org/details/pacific-insects-10-275/page/n6/mode/1up, Slater wrote….”

• A word element in all capitals and italics—PORT, for example—is a word element belonging to one of A-to-Z’s 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages. PORT is presented in A-to-Z in alphabetical order on the PORT page, one of 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages. PORT in insupPORTable tells you to see the PORT page for explanation of the word insupportable.

• A word element that is hyphenated and underlined—pachy-, for example—is a word element presented in A-to-Z in alphabetical order without a page designation and without a cartoon. A-to-Z has the pachy- entry but no pachy- page or pachy- cartoon. A-to-Z contains ##,000 hyphenated-and-underlined word-element sets.

• A word-element set, also called a set, is a group of related word elements or a single word element when there are no related word elements. The MAGNI set, presented in A-to-Z on the MAGNI page, contains word elements MAGNI, MAGNUS, MAGNA, MAGNUM, MAGN, and MAGNO; each of the six word elements in the MAGNI set means great. The PERI set, presented in A-to-Z on the PERI page, is a set with only one word element, PERI. The pachy- set contains word elements pachy-, pachys-, -pachys, -pachus, pacho-, pach-2, pachyno-, pachynt-, and pachyn-. Each set’s name is the first word element in the set.

…

• Latinize means give Latin form or characteristics to a nonLatin word or word element. The possessive form of the English name Bennett is Bennett’s. Modern-era scientists Latinized Bennett’s into the Latinized word Bennetti for a male and the Latinized word Bennettae for a female. Thus A-to-Z has the -bennetti set and the -bennettae set. Canthigaster bennetti is the scientific name for Bennett’s pufferfish.

• True Greek, often abbreviated in Pieces as true G, is the term I invented and use in Pieces to describe [1] original Greek letters (A/α, Β/β, Γ/γ, Δ/δ, Ε/ε, and so on), as opposed to their equivalent Latinized Greek letters (A/a, Β/b, G/g, D/d, Ε/e, and so on), and [2] original Greek words written in original Greek letters. My “true Greek αυτοματος” is given in other references as “Greek αυτοματος.” Latin was the language of ancient Romans. Ancient Romans Latinized αυτοματος into “Latinized Greek automatos.” Nearly all references, including Pieces, give “Greek automatos” instead of “Latinized Greek automatos”; “Latinized” is omitted because Latinized is obvious to people with at least a little knowledge about how true Greek letters are Latinized into Latin letters. True Greek αυτοματος is the source word for English automatic. 

Ancient Greeks only had and only wrote with uppercase Greek letters (A, Β, Γ, Δ, Ε, and so on). Ancient Romans only had and only wrote with uppercase Latin letters (A, Β, C, D, Ε, and so on). Lowercase letters were not added to Greek and Latin alphabets until more than a thousand years after ancient times. Despite these facts, modern-day writers conventionally write nearly all ancient Greek words in lowercase Greek letters (α, β, γ, δ, ε, and so on) and write nearly all ancient Latin words in lowercase Latin letters (a, b, c, d, e, and so on). 

• Transliterate means change letters written in one alphabet into equivalent or closest-matching letters of a different alphabet. True Greek νεκταρ means nectar. Ancient Romans transliterated the true Greek word νεκταρ made of true Greek letters into the equivalent Greek word nektar made of Latin letters; nektar also means nectar. This transliteration is a form of Latinization; this transliteration did not change the meaning of true Greek νεκταρ or Latinized Greek nektar; and this transliteration did not make νεκταρ or nektar a Latin word. In another round of Latinization, ancient Romans changed nektar into nectar. And the ancient Romans added nectar to the Latin vocabulary. Latin nectar also means nectar. Later nectar also became an English word.

…

GREEK, LATIN, AND LATINIZED PREFIXES, ROOTS, AND SUFFIXES ARE WORD ELEMENTS USED IN ENGLISH AND SCIENTIFIC WORDS. 

English has hundreds of thousands of standard-dictionary words, words such as photograph, pentathlon, and chlorophyll. There are millions of beyond-standard-dictionary scientific words, words such as barothermohygrograph, helioseismology, bennetti, and pachyleptomeningitis. A large majority of standard-dictionary and beyond-standard-dictionary words contains Greek, Latin, and Latinized prefixes, roots, and suffixes.

A prefix, if used in a word, comes at the beginning of the word, as in reflex, submarine, diameter, excavate. Some words have more than one prefix, as in incomplete (in + com + plete), superimpose (super + im + pose), and reincarnation (re + in + carnation).

A root is the main part of a word. Occasionally a root appears alone as a word; there is no prefix or suffix affixed to this root. The root PORT occurs in port, porter, transportation, import. A compound is a word consisting of [1] a word or a root and [2] at least one more word or root. Portfolio (root PORT + root FOLIO) is a compound.

A suffix, if used in a word, comes at the end of the word, as in humorous, returnable, government, possessive.

Prefixes generally come from and act like prepositions (such as on, above, in, against, after) and adverbs (such as badly, backward, not, thoroughly, very). The Greek preposition peri means around; from peri we get the prefix PERI meaning around.

Roots generally come from and act like nouns (book, tooth, house), verbs (run, see, go), and adjectives (large, five, heavy). Latin noun manus means hand; from manus we get the root MANU meaning hand. Roots such as ISO, ORTHO, and PROTO appear to be prefixes because they always occur at the beginnings of words. Roots such as ECTOMY, GAMY, and HEDRON appear to be suffixes because they always occur at the ends of words.

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HOW PIECES DEVELOPED.

Pieces is an ebook. Ebooks did not become common until the late 1990s. There is no paper-page edition of Pieces but I, Ernest Newell Spencer, started this project in 1989 with the intention of publishing only a paper-page book. 

I started working on a paper-page book with a list of 250 Greek and Latin prefixes and roots given in a college-entrance-examination help book for high school students. The help book’s authors wrote that for students wanting rapid and meaningful vocabulary improvement, the National Council of Teachers of English, in the United States, encourages learning prefixes and roots rather than cramming and forgetting vast numbers of words and definitions from a list. 

After you learn a word element, you will have at least partial understanding of any of the many words containing that word element. PHIL means love. Philosophy, philodendron, bibliophile, philanthropist, hemophilia, crymophilic, and hundreds of other PHIL words have something to do with love. As you learn more word elements, your understanding of words will grow exponentially. This powerful learning principle gave me strong motivation for creating Pieces, and this powerful learning principle should give you strong motivation for learning word elements.

…

I expanded and developed that list of 250 Greek and Latin prefixes and roots into a draft of a paper-page book with 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages. After more than a decade of researching and writing and cartooning and polishing, it appeared publication of my paper-page book was near. But then I discovered other lists of Greek and Latin word elements. Chief among these lists was the list compiled by United States zoologist Donald Joyce Borror (1907-1988) in his Dictionary of Word Roots and Combining Forms, which was published in 1960. Borror’s list contains about 7,700 entries and is mainly intended to serve scientists, especially those in medicine and biology.

Here are a few entries from Borror’s list:

-cracy (G). Rule; strength

cramb, -o (L): Cabbage; (G): parched

cran, -o, =us (G). A helmet

crang, -o, =on (G). A shrimp

crani, -a, -o, =um (G). The skull.

Borror’s (G) means (Greek). Borror’s (L) means (Latin). crani + =um is cranium.

I decided to include the word elements in Borror’s list in Pieces. Without knowing it, this marked the beginning of my war on biology’s giant hellish hive of difficult-to-understand and difficult-to-learn-about species scientific names. Without knowing it, I was moving on the hive that is protected by information hornets—hordes of troublesome biology documents—that vigorously fight attempts to extract etymologies and meanings. 

What started as a Borror’s-list-to-Pieces copy job I thought might take a few months quickly changed into my academic-void-filling endeavor that went far beyond Borror’s skimpy and confusing information and that required me to work on Pieces for an additional 25 years. 

Borror’s list and Pieces deal with Greek-based and Latin-based word elements. Borror’s list omits hundreds of Greek-based and Latin-based words elements that I include in Pieces. Borror’s list does not deal with any of the vast number of Latinized nonGreek and nonLatin word elements used in species scientific names; Pieces does. Borror’s list does not deal with biologists who name species or with people who species are named after; Pieces does. Borror’s list does not have the Latinized word element -bennetti. Borror’s list does not deal with vernacular words used in species scientific names; Pieces does. Borror’s list does not have Australian Aboriginal marroo, the vernacular word that means black and that is used unchanged as an epithet in the cricket scientific name Trigonidium marroo. 

Typically my investigation of an entry on Borror’s list led me to much off-topic information, which I converted into three to 20 additional entries in Pieces. Where Borror’s list has the entry “geo (G). The earth”; Pieces has the entries G GEO, Ld -geocostae, G -geonoma, Ld -georgecastriotae, Ld -georgechapronierei, Ld -georgeensis, Ld -georgeharrisoni, Ld -georgemartini, Ld -georgescuae, Ld -georgius-fischeri, Ld -georgei, Ld -georgesi, Ld -georgesii, Ld -georgetta, Ld -georgettae1, Ld -georgettae2, Ld -georgettinum, Ld -georgicus1, L -georgicus2, and Ld -georgius-fischeri. Borror’s list does not give species scientific names; Pieces gives over xx,000 species scientific names and explains all but the most obscure of them.

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MNEMONICS.

Mnemonic, pronounced nee·MON·ik, is [1] a noun meaning anything that helps a person remember something or [2] an adjective meaning aiding memory. Mnemonic is from the Greek word mnēmonikos meaning aiding memory or having to do with memory or mnemonics. Psychologists and memory experts who speak and write about memory improvement encourage people to use one or more of a wide variety of mnemonics, especially mnemonics that involve seeing real or imagined pictures.

The 400 cartoons in Pieces are mnemonic cartoons. The 400 cartoons will help you learn the respective 400 word-element sets: A1, AB1, ACRO, ACU, AD, ADEN1, AERO, and so on. 

An effective mnemonic may seem to magically turn an average memory into a great memory. This is not exactly correct. An average memory is a great memory. The average person’s brain is not the reason the average person forgets. Forgetting is the result of putting new information into the brain in a way that makes recall difficult or impossible. Much of what we take into our brains goes only into short-term memory, not long-term memory. If you do not have it in long-term memory, you do not have it. And having it in long-term memory is no guarantee you will be able to get it out when you want it.

New information put into the brain in a way that takes advantage of how the brain works most effectively can be recalled quickly and easily at will for years, if not a lifetime. This is where mnemonics come into play.

Mnemonics have been around at least since ancient Greeks and Romans used mnemonics to remember key topics while giving long speeches without notes. Before going to speak, a speaker mentally placed objects representing topics at various spots along a path in his house or his neighborhood. During his speech he mentally moved along the path looking at these objects. Each object reminded him of a topic on which he wanted to speak. An imaginary ship sailing on his door reminded him to talk about trade. And so on.

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THE GREEK-AND-LATIN CONNECTION.

Section “Greek, Latin, and English History,” which follows Section A-to-Z, explains how Greek, Latin, and English developed and how so much Greek and Latin got into English. This fascinating story involves migrations, empires, barbarians, religious movements, wars, conquests, slavery, and much more. You will see how Greek influenced Latin. You will see how English began as a Germanic dialect and how English came to absorb much Greek, Latin, and French, and bits of several other languages. And you will see how the Romance languages—French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic, Catalan, and Provençal—grew out of Latin, the language of the ancient Romans. The Greek and Latin you learn for the sake of improving your English vocabulary will also help you with the Romance languages.

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ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology, pronounced et·eh·MAHL·eh·jee, is word history. 

…

To learn the history of words is to learn something of the history of the people who created the words. To learn how Latin words ended up in English is to learn about encounters between speakers of Latin and speakers of English.

Etymology is present throughout Pieces.

A-to-Z contains 400 mnemonic-cartoon pages. Each mnemonic-cartoon page has etymology pertinent to that page. The AERO set contains Greek roots AERO, AERI, and AER; each root means air. The AERO page has:

ETYMOLOGY: from Greek aēr (true Greek αηρ), air, mist, haze, hot-air room in the ancient Greek bath, volume, sky blue; and Greek aeros (true Greek αερος), genitive of aēr 

Genitive means the possessive form of a noun. The genitive of frog is “frog’s” or “of a frog” or “belonging to a frog.” The word genitive and species epithets in the genitive case—as in Pinus henryi (Henry’s pine)—occur very frequently in Pieces, so you will do well to memorize the meaning of genitive. The sooner you learn to “know it when you see it” the better. When a biologist sees epithet henryi, the biologist knows henryi means Henry’s. At monti-, I give “L mons, mountain” and “L montis, genitive of mons.” I do not tell you that L montis means mountain’s. As is typical in almost all pertinent references, you are expected to know that the genitive of “L mons, mountain” is mountain’s. See more at “genitive (definition)” in A-to-Z. 

To show that AERO is a Greek root and that AERO comes from the Greek word aēr meaning “air, mist, haze, hot-air room in the ancient Greek bath, volume, sky blue” is to show AERO’s etymology.

The AERO page’s middle has several sample words that contain AERO, AERI, and AER. A pair of red rectangles ( I and I ) enclose etymology specific to a sample word. The sample word AEROdynamics is followed by “ I G AERO, air + G DYNAM, power + L -ic2<-tic>, belonging to or having to do with I .” G = Greek, L = Latin. The Greek root DYNAM, which means power, is featured on its own mnemonic-cartoon page; go to the DYNAM page to learn about DYNAM’s etymology.

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SPECIES SCIENTIFIC NAMES AND COMMON NAMES.

Lepus arcticus is the arctic hare’s scientific name. Lepus arcticus is a species.

Lathyrus odoratus is the sweet pea’s scientific name. Lathyrus odoratus is a species.

In biology a “species scientific name” (or “scientific name” when species is understood) is the formal scientific name given to a species by a biologist or a team of biologists. A species scientific name is a Latin or Latinized or regarded-as-Latinized genus name followed by a Latin or Latinized or regarded-as-Latinized epithet. 

In Lepus arcticus, Lepus is the genus name and arcticus is the epithet. 

In Lathyrus odoratus, Lathyrus is the genus name and odoratus is the epithet.

Arctic hare is Lepus arcticus’ common name.

Sweet pea is Lathyrus odoratus’ common name.

…

A small percentage of species scientific names contain three words instead of two, as in Lepus arcticus groenlandicus, a subspecies of Lepus arcticus. No species scientific name has only one word.

An organism is any past or present one-celled or multicelled living thing. Each bacterium, fungus, plant, beetle, fish, snake, mouse, elephant, dinosaur, or human—dead or alive—is an organism.

Taxonomy is the system and laws for classifying organisms. A taxon is any taxonomic rank. A taxonomic rank, also called rank, is any group that is established by biologists, that contains certain related organisms, and that is placed by biologists within a “hierarchy of taxonomic ranks.” A “hierarchy of taxonomic ranks” is also called “hierarchy” or “taxonomic hierarchy” or “taxonomic tree.” 

The plural of taxon is taxa.

A typical hierarchy contains at least the seven major taxa, which are—from highest to lowest—kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.

Phylum is pronounced FEYE·luhm. The plural of phylum is phyla. Phyla is pronounced FEYE·lah.

Genus is pronounced JEE·nus. The preferred plural of genus is genera. Genera is pronounced JEN·er·uh. A secondary, to-be-avoided plural of genus is genuses.

A species is [1] a group of genetically related organisms that share a unique set of group-defining characteristics and [2] the lowest of seven major taxa to which this group belongs. Lepus arcticus is a species; the genus is Lepus; the species is Lepus arcticus. Lepus arcticus is [1] a group of genetically related hares that share a unique set of Lepus-arcticus-defining characteristics and [2] the lowest of seven major taxa to which Lepus arcticus belongs. It may seem odd that Lepus arcticus, the name for the lowest major taxon (species), contains Lepus, the name for the second-to-lowest major taxon (genus). Do not confuse species (Lepus arcticus) with epithet (arcticus), the second word in the species. 

In biology, definitions of species vary and some definitions get quite involved. Concerned readers should search references outside Pieces.

The group consisting of all kangaroos is not a species, but the group consisting only of red kangaroos is a species. 

If someone discovered the first-known green-headed squirrel, that one squirrel would be a new species. “A species” may refer to a group with millions of related members or may refer to “a group” that currently has only one known member.

The plural of species is species. We may talk about one species or two species or thousands of species.

When a biologist names a new species, the new species is also assigned to a taxonomic hierarchy. A typical hierarchy contains at least the seven major taxa, which are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. The new species belongs to each taxon in its hierarchy. Each organism in this new species belongs to each taxon in this hierarchy. 

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A certain species’ hierarchy can expand beyond the seven major taxa as biologists add minor taxa above or below any of the seven major taxa. Minor taxa include superfamily, subgenus, and subspecies. Lepus arcticus is a species; arcticus is the epithet. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus is a subspecies; groenlandicus is the subspecies epithet. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus is very much like Lepus arcticus, but Lepus arcticus groenlandicus is different enough that biologists chose to distinguish the difference by putting Lepus arcticus groenlandicus in a separate taxon, which is a subspecies. Latin sub means under or below. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus was added below Lepus arcticus. Lepus arcticus groenlandicus is still a member of Lepus arcticus and all the higher taxa in Lepus arcticus’ hierarchy. 

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|||||| LINNAEUS ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778, linnae-) was a famous Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist. “Carolus Linnaeus” is pronounced KAR·uh·luhs li·NEE·uhs. 

In 1735 Linnaeus published the 12-page first edition of his book Systema Naturae. In Systema Naturae Linnaeus divided the natural world into the animal kingdom, plant kingdom, and mineral kingdom; and he presented his system for classifying the natural world. In 1753 Linnaeus published his two-volume Species Plantarum (Latin for The Species of Plants); he gave many plant species their first accepted two-word scientific plant names. In the 1758 tenth edition of Systema Naturae, Linnaeus gave many animal species their first accepted two-word scientific animal names. The 1766 twelfth edition of Systema Naturae, the last edition published during Linnaeus’ life, was 2,400 pages long. Linnaeus named about 7,700 plant species and about 4,400 animal species. 

Linnaeus established the concept of placing each plant species and each animal species in a hierarchy of taxa. He used these taxa: kingdom, class, order, genus, and species—five of the seven major taxa used today. Carolus Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy. 

Sadly, Linnaeus could also be called the father of not giving taxon-name etymologies and meanings. Page 561 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358582 shows the introduction of plant genus Ajuga in Species Plantarum. After dealing with poor print quality and switching each use of the archaic letter ſ to s and translating the Latin, I did not find any explanation of where the word Ajuga comes from or what Ajuga means or what Ajuga refers to. 

Linnaeus’ system of two-word naming and hierarchy classifying has been used from his day to the present. His system is called Linnaeus’ system, the Linnaean system, the Linnaean classification system, and the Linnaean taxonomic system. I call his system “Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system.” 

Linnaeus thought there could not be more than 30,000 plant and animal species on earth.

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|||||| DESCRIPTION ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

A biologist discovers a species or has been given a newly discovered species. The biologist writes a scientific paper called the description to describe the new species. The description tells other biologists around the world about the new species. “New species” here means a newly discovered and newly described species; “new species” does not here refer to when the species emerged on the evolutionary timeline. 

For the new species the biologist must name a new epithet or, if necessary, must name a new genus name and a new epithet and perhaps other new major and/or minor taxon names for the new species’ hierarchy. A new genus name or new epithet is not “accepted” or “valid” until the description has been properly published as part of a scientific article or scientific book and has successfully dealt with the scrutiny of scientists around the world. This scrutiny is also known as peer review. A species that has been discovered but that has not yet been described and named is an undescribed species. 

Anyone can discover a species. Sometimes a nonbiologist discovers a species and a biologist describes and names this species.

The biologist who names an epithet is called the author of the epithet. The biologist who names a genus name is called the author of the genus name. The biologist who names a family name is called the author of the family name. And so on for all other taxon names. When a taxon is named by two or more biologists working as a team, each biologist is a coauthor of the taxon name. 

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Almost every genus name or epithet is a Latin or Latinized word. A high percentage of genus names and epithets are Latin words. A high percentage of genus names and epithets are Latinized Greek words. The true Greek word δακτυλος, which means finger or toe, is transliterated into Latinized Greek daktulos, which also means finger or toe. Daktulos is fully Latinized as dactylus in Pachydactylus rugosus (wrinkled thick-toed gecko [lizard]). Biology writers typically give dactylus as “Greek dactylus”; the Latinization of δακτυλος into dactylus is understood.

Almost any nonLatin word from almost any nonLatin language may be Latinized and used as a genus name or epithet or other taxon name. Numerous French, Spanish, and Italian words are Latinized and used; see, for example, French -vermin, Spanish hermosa-, and Italian brecci-. In Pieces, I usually abbreviate “Latinized” as “Ld”.

Occasionally a nonLatin word is used without being Latinized. From Zambezi, a river in Africa, comes the root -zambezi, which appears in Gryllus zambezi (a cricket). For convenience, I treat word elements such as -zambezi as being Latinized word elements; they are used like and sometimes resemble Latinized word elements. At -zambezi is “-zambezi,…Ld root = Zambezi…(a river at 15.710S 29.377E in Africa).”

A genus name or epithet or other taxon name may be named after a son, daughter, spouse, friend, colleague, explorer, species discoverer, god, goddess, nymph, epic hero, philosopher, king, tribe, river, sea, ocean, island, mountain, ship, organization, ancient place, present-day place, mythical person and place, character or place in a literary work such as J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit or The Lord of the Rings (see TOLKIEN), vernacular name for a plant or animal, word from Buddhism, and so on. Leuctra dylani (a roll-winged stonefly) was named after United States singer Bob Dylan (1941-) because Bob Dylan wrote the song “Everybody Must Get Stoned.” Calponia harrisonfordi (a spider) was named after United States movie star Harrison Ford (1942-). Garthambrus darthvaderi (a crab) was named after Star War’s Darth Vader.

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About 2 million past and present species have scientific names that are currently accepted by biological authorities. 

Estimates of the number of undiscovered and known-but-not-yet-named species range from a few million to 1 trillion. The National Science Foundation is a United States governmental agency. A 2016 report on a study funded by the National Science Foundation stated, “Earth could contain nearly 1 trillion species, with only one-thousandth of 1 percent now identified.”

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PROBLEMS WITH LINNAEUS’ SPECIES-NAMING-AND-CLASSIFYING SYSTEM.

From here to the end of the Introduction, I will strongly criticize Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system, the system that biology has used for centuries and is currently using and the system I spent about 25 years fighting to decipher while writing Pieces. 

After the Introduction, I will set aside my negative feelings regarding Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system and present a neutral work that always seeks to make Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system easier to understand and use. 

|||||| FINE MESS ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) thought there could not be more than 30,000 plant and animal species on earth. Since Linnaeus’ lifetime, biology has dealt with millions of species. At this writing biologists all over the world have been giving new scientific names to about 18,000 newly discovered species each year. At a rate of 18,000 per year, biologists would add a million new species scientific names every 56 years. Present-day evolutionary biologists say over 99 percent of all species that ever lived on earth have gone extinct; this means hundreds of millions of species have gone extinct. Like Tyrannosaurus rex, even extinct species get scientific names. About 2 million species have been given species scientific names so far. The collection of species scientific names has long been drenched with confusion-causing problems. 

Suppose you receive the message “Go to the thing on Oak Street. —Kell.” You will not know where to go or what to look for. What country? What city? What street number? What thing? Park? Tree? Statue? Fountain? Gazebo? House? School? Skyscraper? What is the thing next to? What does the thing look like? When was the thing placed on Oak Street? Who is “Kell.”? Kelly? Keller? Kellerman? Kellogg? Kellner? Kellenberger? Is “Kell.” male or female? How old is “Kell.”? What country is “Kell.” from? What is his or her occupation? When was the message written? Where can you find out about the thing on Oak Street or about “Kell.”? What do you do when references that should explain the message do not explain the message? Without adequate information you will be lost. The message “Go to the thing on Oak Street. —Kell.” is meaningless. The message is useless, except that it is a record of a meaningless message.

Pathetically hundreds of thousands of taxon names are like the murky message “Go to the thing on Oak Street. —Kell.” These taxon names lack sufficient information. These taxon names are misleading. These taxon names make little or no sense, even to experienced biologists. And these taxon names and the people who create these taxon names are difficult to investigate, even in today’s electronically searchable world. Pathetically these murky useless and near-useless taxon names pass as acceptable scientific names. Murky taxon names hinder species studies by biologists, educators, students, amateurs, and occasional enquirers. Biology needs to take out the garbage.

Biology, you created these genus names: Tlalocohyla, Jerapowellia, Pahamunaya, Uzomathis, Xorilbia, Hoemoedenodema, Nomisia, Malasigalphus, Lluciapomaresius, Milax, Euhyponomeutoides, Bonisa, Intiacris, Ipermarca, Porraxia, Ystrixoxygymna, Apsaphida, Jajpurattus, Neomocena, Pronomopsis, Sapucchaka, Hylonomoipos, Mygalobas, Plectagonidium,…. 

And you created these epithets: fo, tsvarafiazga, filiplumemilyssa, tizintesti, nomonana, intawitschajanon, moxaria, elishevae, tjerapai, dschischungarense, guevara, tsitongambarikana, lhoesti, crumpii, ii, iijimae, ghaikamaidanwalla, ypiranguensis, colandina, eregoodootenkee, olista, kulkawirra, thymalopsoides, kina, rupamii, rhetidum, brocae, zijpi, intawitschajanon,…. 

Now give each genus name’s and each epithet’s complete and precise etymology and meaning. If the average biologist cannot find and give complete and precise explanations in less than 1 minute per name, biology has the big problem of having an abundance of murky taxon names. Genus names and epithets given in the preceding two paragraphs comprise just a scraping off the tip of the iceberg of murky taxon names.

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There is nothing scientific about taxon names that people cannot understand and cannot easily learn about.

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|||||| SYNONYM |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| 

In biology a synonym is an obsolete, no-longer-accepted species scientific name. Quercus carolinensis was once an accepted species scientific name but is now a synonym of Quercus cravenensis, a species of oak. 

New information and new thinking about a species may necessitate changing the species’ genus name and/or epithet name. Discovery of a misspelled or otherwise faulty species scientific name may necessitate a name change. Back when news traveled very slowly, a biologist could learn that the new scientific name he or she gave a species had years or decades earlier been given to another same-kingdom species; that biologist or some other follow-up biologist would have to coin a replacement name. Many species named before DNA analysis was available have been renamed due to DNA analysis. 

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Biologists must keep track of synonyms forever. Typically before a taxon name is downgraded to synonym, the taxon name had been an accepted name for years or decades and this formerly accepted taxon name was written into the original description and other important old documents. Often key information such as taxon-name etymology, taxon-name meaning, or type locality is only available in an original description. Unfortunately finding an electronic copy of an original description is often difficult to impossible. Typically the original description has been digitized but is hiding in a complex maze of internet search results, files, and scientific gibberish and abbreviations. 

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|||||| NEW LATIN ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

New Latin has existed from around year 1500 to present and has been used mainly in science. By changing and combining Greek and Latin words and word elements, scientists have created hundreds of thousands of New Latin scientific words, words such as microscope, cardiovascular, intracranial, univalent, astronaut, computer, and quadriceps. 

Latin dictionaries do not have New Latin words. To find the etymology and meaning of a certain New Latin genus name or epithet, you must search other references, sometimes for hours or days. You may never find the etymology and meaning. Often the etymology and meaning were not written down or are buried in obscure text or are lost.

Eurycnema versirubra is a stick insect. Males turn from green to red. New Latin epithet versirubra combines Latin root VERSI, turn, and Latin root RUBRA<RUBE>, red. Latin dictionaries do not have versirubra. Once you know its etymology and meaning, New Latin epithet versirubra makes sense.

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|||||| INFORMATION OVERLOAD ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

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Taxon names often have Latinized forms of strange and obscure names of people, places, and things, as shown in epithets gregorpovolnyi, linneaeruthaebrykae, itaquaquecetubae, kurandamallai, mahumetana, vinogradovae. Such a taxon name has practical meaning only when the taxon name’s etymology and meaning can be quickly found and explained in nearby text or a searchable website or a searchable electronic taxon dictionary like Pieces. Quick explanations often cannot be found. Biology has a very long way to go to make etymologies and meanings of all taxon names readily understandable.

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|||||| INFORMATION UNDERLOAD ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

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Searching for an etymological answer is often a sluggish, inefficient, time-wasting experience involving several wrong-way side trips and often involving failure to find a trustworthy answer. I looked up Chlorophorus jacobsoni in www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search and learned it is a beetle. I wanted to know to whom, where, or what epithet jacobsoni refers. Epithet jacobsoni, a Latinized form of Jacobson, means Jacobson’s; the Latin -i suffix in jacobsoni indicates “belonging to a male” or, less likely, “belonging to a place or thing.”

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|||||| ABBREVIATION PROBLEMS ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Abbreviating is a standard, but foolish, practice in biology writing. 

Who are E.P. Snijders, V.K. Sowinsky, Sacc., Trávn., Hmpsn., N.E.Br., “Thaung, M.M.,” Wiinst., Kjellm., Desbr. d. Loges, Willd., and “Carmen C., D. del”?

Biology writers often automatically and mindlessly abbreviate even when abbreviation makes no sense. “Petr.” (five characters and confusion) is biology’s official abbreviation of “Petrak” (six characters and much less confusion). “Gaertn.” (seven characters and confusion) is biology’s official abbreviation of “Gaertner” (eight characters and much less confusion). “Kirschst.” (nine characters and confusion) is biology’s official abbreviation of “Kirschstein” (11 characters and much less confusion). 

Poor, misunderstood biology: It cannot afford a few extra letters to finish its words so people can have a better chance of understanding what it is saying. 

After a reader wastes time decoding Petr. or Gaertn. or Kirschst., the reader must waste more time trying to find the first name, middle name, and other biographical information on Petrak or Gaertner or Kirschstein.

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Wigg.: this must be Miss Wiggles. Underw.: this must be Mr. Underwear. Bat.: this must be Batman. Died.: rest in peace. Welcome to the Biology Follies.

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Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries gives information about botanists on its website kiki.huh.harvard.edu/databases/botanist_index.html. This website had R. P. Klaine and Père Théophile-Joseph Klaine listed as two different people. As usual I was motivated to decode the abbreviations. I found what “R. P.” means. I emailed Harvard saying that R. P. Klaine is the same man as Père Théophile-Joseph Klaine and I cited dependable references. Théophile-Joseph Klaine (1842-1911) was a French Catholic missionary with the title Révérend Père, which some writer abbreviated to “R. P.”, which has confused people ever since. French Révérend means Reverend. French Père means Father. Révérend Père Théophile-Joseph Klaine was a plant collector in Africa. Harvard thanked me for my clarification, updated the pertinent webpage, and added my name to that webpage as a contributor.

If Harvard can be fooled by abbreviations, anybody can be fooled by abbreviations.

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Austrosalomona personafrons is an insect. Webpage www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/JY2X says this insect is native to “NFK”. Website www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search is not responsible for garbage terms like NFK. This website gathers information from many contributors and presents the gathered information with little or no editing. This website should make contributors provide meaningful uncoded information. The contributor that gave NFK apparently thinks everyone knows that NFK stands for NorFolK, which means Norfolk Island. Instead of giving NFK, the contributor and in turn www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/JY2X should give “Norfolk Island” or, better, “Norfolk Island, which is at 29.024S 167.948E in Australia.” Information-providing organizations must provide useful and meaningful information, not abbreviated or otherwise incomplete and confusing junk. (In or before 2023, www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/JY2X changed NFK to the less confusing “Norfolk I.” and “Norfolk Is.”)

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A person should not have to be a cryptographer to make sense of scientific writing.

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In Pieces, I unabbreviate biology’s abbreviations as much as possible.

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|||||| MESSCELLANEOUS ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Here are some more ways in which the naming of species is a messy business.

An anagram is a word or phrase made by rearranging the letters of another word or phrase. Stove is an anagram of votes. They see is a clever same-topic anagram of the eyes. Anagrams are fun during playtime. Anagrams have no place in the already much-too-complicated game of trying to understand taxon names. But many anagram taxon names have been accepted, especially as genus names.

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For some taxon-naming biologists it is a sport to try to slip frivolous taxon names past authorities who approve proposed taxon names. One trick used is the pun. Agra vation is a beetle scientific name; Agra vation contains the “proper” genus name Agra and the “improper” epithet vation; Agra vation is a pun on the English word aggravation; see -vation. Pieza kake is a bee-fly scientific name; Pieza kake contains the “proper” genus name Pieza and the “improper” epithet kake; Pieza kake is a pun on the English phrase piece of cake; see -kake.

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A species scientific name named after a person does nothing to describe the species. A species scientific name that partly describes the species is much more helpful to readers. A descriptive name requires little or no tedious mystery-solving detective work to know the name’s meaning. A reader may need to look up words or word elements in a Greek dictionary or Latin dictionary or reference such as Pieces, but this is quick work. A descriptive name helps you know what a species looks like or where a species lives or what a species eats or how a species moves or what a species makes. 

Here are a few helpful descriptive epithets: albilabris means white-lipped, tetraphyllum means fourleaf, brevipes means short-legged, macrocephala means big-headed, chinensis means living in China (Chin[a] + Latin -ensis1, living in), psammophilus means sand-loving, cancrivorus means crab-eating. Someone who does not know what cancrivorus means can easily look up cancri and vorus and figure out that cancrivorus means crab-eating.

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The Latinized epithet canadensis means living in Canada; canadensis = Canad(a) + Latin -ensis1, living in. The last “a” in Canada was dropped.

Dropping one or more end-of-word letters is fairly common and is just one of several dumb ways taxon-naming biologists raise the confusion level among people trying to make sense of taxon names. Some biologists do not seem to care whether people understand their taxon names. Some biologists do not seem to think explaining their taxon names is necessary.

Epithet canadensis could reasonably send someone searching for a place named Canad. Website www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search has about 500 accepted species scientific names that contain canadensis and two accepted species scientific names that contain canadaensis. At least a couple of biologists went a better way.

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A common problem in the taxon-cracking business is trying to determine the word elements in a mystery taxon. Where do we make the word-element cut? Micromorphus limosorum is a fly. After a long aggressive search, I did not find the etymology and meaning of epithet limosorum. At limi- in A-to-Z, I had to write ‘apparently [1] “L limos-<limi->, mud, slime + L -orum, belonging to two or more specified people or places or things” but perhaps [2] “L limo-1<limi->, mud, slime + G/L -sorum<-soros>, a heap.”’

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Biologists who create bad taxon names create trouble for people at the receiving end of the taxon-naming pipeline. People want to know what taxon names mean. People do not want confusion and misdirection.  

Biology is a beautiful and fascinating science. But biology’s bad habit of not giving taxon-name etymologies and meanings or not giving adequate taxon-name etymologies and meanings makes much of biology’s paperwork confusing, frustrating, and unpleasant.

All the uncertainty pertaining to taxon-name etymologies and meanings should be a great embarrassment to biology. Biology must fix Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system to eliminate all uncertainty and to stop the creation of taxon names without etymologies and meanings. Finding any taxon-name etymology or meaning should be a quick and easy effort, not a time-wasting quest that finds little or nothing or that leads to misinterpretation. Biology must work toward the goal of giving good etymologies and meanings to all taxon names. Biology must stop naming messy new taxon names. Clean up the mess and do not allow the mess to grow.

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RECOMMENDED ADJUSTMENTS TO LINNAEUS’ SPECIES-NAMING-AND-CLASSIFYING SYSTEM.

|||||| EXPLAIN THE NAME ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Much too often trying to learn the etymology and meaning of a taxon name becomes a frustrating waste of time that yields no information, only partial information, ambiguous information, or incorrect information.

Science should always seek to make the unknown known and to clarify ambiguities.

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I would guess that more than half of past and present taxon-naming authors do not give etymologies and meanings or do not give adequate etymologies and meanings. Proposed taxon names in descriptions have to go to taxon-name-approving authorities. These authorities must require every taxon author to precisely and clearly give the etymology and meaning of the proposed taxon name and each part of the proposed taxon name. 

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For the sake of meaningful information flow through time, every author who writes about a previously named species must repeat the etymology and meaning of that previously named species’ scientific name. If an author cannot find a pertinent etymology or meaning, the author must say so and must suggest what the etymology or meaning could be.

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As a model for doing it right, biologists should look at the 2014 book “Dichopetala and New Related North American Genera” at https://orthsoc.org/sina/cohnswansonfontana2014.pdf. Authors Theodore J. Cohn, Daniel R. Swanson, and Paolo Fontana, all entomologists, discuss 32 katydid species in 8 katydid genera. A katydid is a shrill-making bushcricket. The authors named 20 new taxa. The authors also discussed 20 previously named taxa. In APPENDIX II ETYMOLOGIES the authors gave the etymologies of all new taxa and the etymologies or surmised etymologies of all previously named taxa. In several cases when discussing a previously named taxon, the authors wrote “No etymology was given in the original description”; the authors then gave their surmised etymology.

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In terms of the etymologies and meanings of taxon names, the Tree of Life is overloaded with dead leaves.

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|||||| TAXON NAME TWEAKS ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Carolus Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system has long been warped and strained while trying to accommodate the vast number of species in need of new and unique scientific names.

The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature governs and occasionally amends the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. The International Botanical Congress governs and occasionally amends the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. 

To relieve pressure on the over-loaded Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system, these two governing organizations and other such biological governing organizations should officially allow species to be named partly or fully in English: Octopus dwarfed, Bacteroides purplish, Tulip stinky.

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Species scientific names could include numbers: Octopus dwarfed010, Octopus dwarfed020, Octopus dwarfed030. Numbers 010, 020, 030 allow for inserting newly discovered species from 001 to 009, from 011 to 019, and from 021 to 029. Also, if Octopus dwarfed020 needs to be renamed, Octopus dwarfed020 could be changed to Octopus dwarfed021. 

Species scientific names could include dates and serial-letter suffixes: Octopus dwarfed1945, Octopus dwarfed1948, Octopus dwarfed1949, Octopus dwarfed1949b, Octopus dwarfed1949c.

Canadian entomologist Fernand Schmid (1924-1998, -schmidi1) named epithets for over 1400 caddisfly species. Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system required Schmid to come up with a unique epithet for every or nearly every caddisfly species he dealt with. Schmid often used mysterious words from India’s languages for epithets, as in caddisflies Hydropsyche dhusaravarna, Hydropsyche katugahakanda, Hydropsyche mahrkusha, and Hydropsyche malassanka. Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system needs more clarity, not more mystery. It would be far better to have something like Hydropsyche india00010, Hydropsyche india00020, Hydropsyche india00030, and so on.

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Biology could have Octopus 33.310n134.215e, where 33.310n134.215e is the epithet and the type locality’s Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates; 33.310n means 33.310 degrees north latitude and 134.215e means 134.215 degrees east longitude. To see the type locality on a Google map, copy and paste 33.310n134.215e into an internet search box and press the Enter key. A pair of GPS coordinates is precise. A place-indicating taxon such as californicus in Octopus californicus or hongkongensis in Octopus hongkongensis is vague. Where in California? Where in Hong Kong? After being introduced in an article, Octopus 33.310n134.215e could be abbreviated in that article to Octopus 33n.

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The millipede scientific name Hyleoglomeris jacobsoni contains Jacobson. Good luck trying to find out who or where or what this Jacobson is. The name Jacobson in a taxon name causes a great deal of confusion and does nothing to describe the species. Instead, keep Mr. Jacobson’s name in the species description and other documents, where Mr. Jacobson can be fully and properly discussed.

It is good to recognize a person for his or her work or discovery, but a taxon name is not the place for such recognition. A story and a biography do not fit in a taxon name. Centuries of naming taxa after people have prevented readers from understanding a great number of taxon names.

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|||||| STOP ABBREVIATING ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Biology, stop the abbreviation nonsense. Stop the confusion, frustration, and misinterpretation that comes from abbreviating. Stop hinting at the full information. Peekaboo is for babies. Give the full information. Be as helpful as possible to readers, especially readers who have little or no experience in the topic area but who would be eager to learn if not hindered and frustrated by abbreviations and other reading biohazards. Remember students, foreigners, and people in a hurry. Stop using counterproductive confusion-causing conventions.

Biology, stop abbreviating people names. Stop giving only last names. Break away from peekaboo communications. The subject matter of scientific papers is confusing enough. Stop raising the confusion level by injecting half-baked words. Stop making readers endure needless confusion. Stop making a reader waste time searching for an abbreviation’s meaning, often following a wrong path to a wrong answer, often believing the wrong answer is the right answer, and often telling others that the wrong answer is the right answer. 

Biology, you abbreviate Johannes Elias Teijsmann to Teijsm., and you use Teijsm. in documents without telling readers what Teijsm. means. If you mean Johannes Elias Teijsmann, write Johannes Elias Teijsmann, at least at the first mention of the man in a document. After the first mention write only Johannes Elias Teijsmann or write Teijsmann routinely but occasionally repeat Johannes Elias Teijsmann to remind readers of the full name. Never use Teijsm. 

Add to this Teijsm. mess the fact that Teijsmann is also spelled Teysmann and Teysmann gets abbreviated to Teysm. The innocent investigator who sees Teijsm. over here and Teysm. over there will think Teijsm. and Teysm. are two different people.

Do not abbreviate any person’s name. Leave the faulty confusion-causing conventions of the past in the past. It is just as easy to copy and paste Johannes Elias Teijsmann as it is to copy and paste Teijsm. The 8.6-page version of a document costs no more to produce and distribute than the 8.5-page version.

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Abbreviations stink. Stop stinking.

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|||||| MINIMUM BIOGRAPHY ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||

Here are some minimum biographies:

AUSTIN. Andrew Donald Austin (PhD 1982), male Australian arachnologist and entomologist specializing in wasps.  

DILLEN. Johann Jacob Dillen (1684-1747), male German botanist. His name is also given as Johannes Jacobus Dillen and John James Dillen.   

KRIVOLUTSKAYA. Gali Olimpievna Krivolutskaya (1923-2007), female Russian entomologist.

… 

Biology should establish a continually updated website that provides a minimum biography on every person mentioned in all biological documents, including every eponym and every biological author. A minimum biography must give a person’s first and middle and last names, nickname, birth year and death year (or other time-establishing information, such as “PhD 2014” or “She published between at least 1986 and 2019”), gender, nationality, and specialty (lepidopterist, ornithologist, orchidologist, beetle collector). 

Sometimes biologist A has a daughter or brother or cousin or other relative who is also a biologist. In this case, biologist A’s minimum biography must give the full name of pertinent same-last-name relatives. This will help prevent the confusion that frequently occurs when a last name could refer to more than one family member.

…

With minimum biographies, readers can see where individuals fit in the all-things-biological picture and readers can easily search for more substantial biographies. Through the centuries biology has foolishly favored giving only a person’s last name or abbreviated last name. If ten readers are only given “Panning,” they could wander in ten directions—some right, some wrong—hunting for Panning’s biography.

…

|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| end of MINIMUM BIOGRAPHY ||||||

It is tragic that a high percentage of species scientific names are incomprehensible, ambiguous, arbitrary, vague, bizarre, absurd, etymologically dead, based on fiction, or otherwise useless. This is no way to run a science. Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system should be overhauled. Biology’s Frankenstaxon names—the monstrous, frightful, and misunderstood taxon names created by zealous biologists—must be replaced with logical, descriptive, and easy-to-understand or easy-to-decipher taxon names.

Carolus Linnaeus’ species-naming-and-classifying system would be workable for now if a person could go to a website, insert any taxon name, and be quickly given this taxon name’s etymology and meaning.

…

I searched thousands of references for etymologies and meanings of taxon names. It was usually a considerable struggle to try to find answers to the basic questions Where did this word element come from?, What does this word element mean?, and Why was this species given this species scientific name? Biologists and university biology students must learn to give etymologies and meanings with 100 percent clarity and completeness 100 percent of the time. Finding an answer should be a quick and easy search, not a long and cumbersome hunt that may yield little or nothing.

…

End of Introduction (Section 1)

Section 2: A-to-Z

A-to-Z CONVENTIONS.

In Pieces’ Introduction, subsection “Some Terms and Conventions” has terms and conventions that you should be aware of and that are not repeated in this subsection.

You are now reading subsection “A-to-Z Conventions,” which is followed by subsection A-to-Z—A, which is followed by subsection A-to-Z—B, which is followed by subsection A-to-Z—C, and so on down to subsection A-to-Z—Z.

A-to-Z is a very long alphabetical list that fills over 95 percent of Pieces.

• A colored tab (██, ██, ██, ██, ██, or ██) marks the start of each entry in subsection A-to-Z—A through subsection A-to-Z—Z. A certain font goes with a certain colored tab. Here is what the colored tabs mean:… 

…

A-to-Z—F

ffffffffffffffffffff

G = Greek █ L = Latin █ Ld = Latinized █ NewL = New Latin █ ? = unknown or uncertain █ N = North, E = East, S = South, W = West. Google “37.9718N 23.7265E” and get a Google map showing this point on earth. █ Unless indicated otherwise, I and me and my refer to Ernest Newell Spencer, the author of Pieces. █ seven major taxa: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species █ [A] -pasteuri = [A] Louis Pasteur’s. [B] -pasteuria and [C] pasteur- refer to Louis Pasteur but mean something other than Louis Pasteur’s. █ the genitive of Pasteur is “Pasteur’s” or “belonging to Pasteur” █ myrmecologist? Search on bbii or bbbiii or bbbbiiii or such. █ To hear a word’s or phrase’s pronunciation, copy and paste the word or phrase into translate.google.com and click the Listen icon.

██ f. [L forma, form—as in Uncaria lanosa f. gynogumna (a plant)], see infraspecies (definition)

██ fab-1, see -faba

██ fab-2, see -fabula

██ -faba, faba-, -fabae, -fabaceus, -fabacea, fabacea-, -fabaceum, -fabacearum, -fabaceous, fabace-, fabacei-, fabi-, fab-1, -fabata, fabat-, -fabalis, -fabale, fabali-, L root = a bean: from

[1] L faba, a bean;

[2] L fabae, genitive and plural of faba;

[3] L fabaceus (masculine—fab[a] + L -aceus<-aceous>, resembling, having the nature of, made of, belonging to) or fabacea (feminine) or fabaceum (neuter), belonging to or having to do with beans, containing beans, fabaceous (pertaining to LEGumes, having the nature of legumes, bearing legumes);

[4] L fabacearum, genitive plural of L fabacea;

[5] L fabatus (masculine—faba + L -tus, having) or fabata (feminine) or fabatum (neuter), made of beans; and

[6] L fabalis (masculine or feminine) or fabale (neuter) belonging to or having to do with one or more beans, bean- (as in bean-resembling nut): as in

Vicia faba (broad bean), 

Malletia faba (bean malletia = bean-shaped malletia [clam]),

Crenella faba (bean crenella [mussel—see mollusk]),

Caralinda fabalecta (a MILLIpede) (first discovered in South Carolina, a USA state, by United States zoologist Jeffrey Charles Beane [1960-]. In 2000, United States myriapodologist Rowland M. Shelley [1942-2018] named epithet fabalecta after Jeffrey Charles Beane, where L faba [a bean] is a pun that stands for Beane and L lecta means collected [LEG1]. Jeffrey Charles Beane was the first to collect, that is, the first to discover, Caralinda fabalecta.),

Aphis fabae (black bean aphid [insect]—see aphid) (lives on [“belongs to”] bean plants and many other plants),

Chiorchis fabaceus (a trematode [parasitic flatworm, a PLATYhelminth]) (The photograph shows a Chiorchis fabaceus egg. A synonym [obsolete name] of Chiorchis fabaceus is Amphistoma fabaceum. Epithet fabaceum was named in 1838 by Austrian naturalist and zoologist [specializing in parasitic worms] Karl Moriz Diesing [1800-1867; his name is also given as Carl Moritz Diesing]. I, Ernest Newell Spencer, did not find what epithet fabaceus refers to. Chiorchis fabaceus is a common PARAsite in the intestines of manatees. Some manatees eat significant amounts of legumes. Perhaps Diesing thought the Amphistoma fabaceum egg resembles a bean.),

Astragalus fabaceus (a legume) of legume family (also called pea family or bean family) Fabaceae (trees, shrubs, vines, and herbs that bear bean pods. L fab[a], bean + L -aceae1, botanical family) of legume order Fabales (L fab[a], bean + L -ales<-al>. In botany -ales is a standard suffix indicating a botanical order.), 

Cythere fabacea (an ostracod—see ostracod), 

Marah fabacea (California manroot = green-flowered manroot = wild cucumber [plant]) [resembles Vicia faba (broad bean)], 

Phyllonorycter fabaceaella (a moth) (The larvae feed on plant-genus-Lathyrus species, which are members of legume family [also called pea family or bean family] Fabaceae.), 

Zasmidium fabacearum (a fungus) (lives on [“belongs to”] certain family-Fabaceae legumes. L fabacearum is the genitive plural of fabacea. L fabacea here means belonging to legumes.), 

fa·ba·ceous fabaceous (pertaining to legumes, which include beans, peas, clover, alfalfa, carob, soybeans, peanuts, locust trees, acacia trees, and many other plants of legume family Fabaceae—see LEGume and -legume]), 

Entoloma fabaceolum (a mushroom) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Entoloma fabaceolum is Amphistoma fabaceola. Epithet fabaceola was named in 1977 by United States botanist and mycologist David Lee Largent [1937-]. L/French -ola/-olum<-olus>, small. I did not find what epithet fabaceola or epithet fabaceolum refers to.), 

Zasmidium fabaceicola (a fungus) (lives on [L COLA2<COLUS1>, living in] the leaves of certain family-Fabaceae legumes), 

fab·i·form fabiform, fa·bism fabism, fa·bel·la fabella and plural fa·bel·lae fabellae, 

Telema fabata (a spider) (Epithet fabata refers to the bean-shaped spermatheca, a small sac on or small cavity in many female inVERTEbrate animals where sperm is received and stored until needed for fertilizing eggs.), 

fab·a·tar·i·um fabatarium ([Archaeology] a large ancient Roman earthenware vessel in which beans or bean soup was served—L fabat[us], made of beans + L -arium, place for), 

Anser fabalis (bean goose) (Epithet fabalis was named in 1760 by French zoologist and natural philosopher Mathurin Jacques Brisson [1723-1806]. In Brisson’s lifetime Anser fabalis routinely grazed in bean fields in the winter.), 

Sphaerium fabale (river fingernailclam [clam]) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Sphaerium fabale is Cyclas fabalis. Epithet fabalis was named in 1852 by United States malacologist Temple Prime [1832-1903]. The description starts on page 159 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8870869 with “CYCLAS FABALIS” but Temple Prime did not give the etymology and meaning of epithet fabalis. Temple Prime apparently named epithet fabalis after this clam’s resemblance to a bean.), 

Fabalicypris minuta (an ostracod—see ostracod [extinct, fossil]) (The type locality is Illinois, a USA state. Genus Fabalicypris and epithet minuta were named in 1946 by male United States geologist Chalmer Lewis Cooper [1898-1999]. The genus-Fabalicypris description starts on page 59 in www.ideals.illinois.edu/items/43611 with “Genus FABALICYPRIS Cooper, n. gen. Carapace tumid, ovate to lenticular in lateral outline…” The carapace is this ostracod’s body shell. English lenticular means having the shape of a double-convex lens. A lentil is a double-convex seed in legume family Fabaceae. Fabalicypris = “L fabali[s], belonging to or having to do with one or more beans + G -cypris, Aphrodite, Venus, lovely, sexual, prostitute,” meaning ?) 

██ FABER, an unidentified person with the last name Faber, see -faberi3 

██ FABER, Albrecht Faber (biologist specializing in the bioacoustics), see -faberi4

██ FABER, Alice Elizabeth Faber (also Alice Elizabeth Faber Tryon) (pteridologist), see -faberiana2 

██ FABER, Ernst Faber (missionary, plant collector), see -faberi2 

██ FABER, Marien J. Faber (malacologist), see -faberi6 

██ FABER, Walther Faber (entomologist), see -faberi5 

██ -faber, -faberi1, faber-, -fabra, L root = skillful: from 

[1] L noun faber, workman, artisan, craftsman (carpenter, blacksmith, etc.), smith, carpenter, worker; 

[2] L adjective faber (masculine) or fabra (feminine) or fabrum (neuter), skillful, ingenious, belonging to or having to do with a craftsman or workman or artisan or his work; and 

[3] NewL faberi (epithet faber + L -i2 = epithet faber’s. See Nyctotheroides faberi below in this entry.): as in 

Ergates faber (a beetle) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Ergates faber is Cerambyx faber. Epithet faber in Cerambyx faber was named in 1761 by male Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist Carolus Linnaeus [1707-1778, linnae-]. Linnaeus’ written-in-Latin description, which is on page 187 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/32170656, is: 

CERAMBYX Faber thorace marginato utrinque unidentato rugoso, elytris piceis. Frisch. inf. 13. p. t. 18. forte. Habitat paffim. DESCR. Magnitudo C, coriarii, Antenna vix corporis longitudine, Thorax punctis excavatis rugofus, ut totum corpus nigrum, Elytra non striata.

Translated, where possible, this is:

CERAMBYX Faber [CERAMBYX Carpenter?] thorax emarginate and unidentate wrinkled on both sides, elytra pitchy. Frisch. inf. 13. p. t. 18. forte. Habitat paffim. DESCR. Magnitudo C, leather goods, Antenna scarcely the length of the body, Thorax wrinkled with excavated points, so that the whole body is black, Elytra not streaked.

So Linnaeus did not give epithet faber’s etymology and meaning.), 

Promonhystera faber (a nematode [roundworm]) (Epithet faber was named in 1956 by male Austrian nematodologist Wolfgang Wieser [1924-2017]. Wieser’s description starts on page 72 in file:///C:/Downloads/Wieser_III_1956.pdf with “Promonhystera faber n.sp.” but Wieser does not give epithet faber’s etymology and meaning.), 

Chaetodipterus faber (angelfish = Atlantic spadefish = moonfish = ocean cobbler = sea donkey = threebanded sheephead = threetailed porgy) [Webpage etyfish.org/acanthuriformes2 says: 

Chaetodipterus faber (Broussonet 1782)   name based on Faber marinus fere quadratus from Sloane’s 1725 Voyage to Jamaica, etymology not explained nor evident; faber can mean blacksmith, coppersmith, carpenter, artisan, workmanlike and skillful, perhaps referring in some way to the fish’s shape, described by Sloane as “almost square with the Fins.” 

Faber marinus fere quadratus is L for “A marine carpenter almost square.”], 

Cyclotrachelus faber (a beetle) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Cyclotrachelus faber is Molops faber. Epithet faber in Molops faber was named in 1823 by German entomologist and mineralogist Ernst Friedrich Germar [1786-1853, -germari]. Germar’s written-in-Latin description starts on page 23 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/53456264 with “MOLOPS FABER” but Germar did not give epithet faber’s etymology and meaning. Another synonym of Cyclotrachelus faber is Evarthrus faber; see Cyclotrachelus levifaber below in this entry.), 

Cyclotrachelus levifaber (a beetle) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Cyclotrachelus levifaber is Evarthrus levifaber. Epithet levifaber in Evarthrus levifaber was named in 1969 by Canadian entomologist [specializing in beetles] Richard E. Freitag [1935-]. Freitag’s description starts on page 123 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/52010195 with “Evarthrus levifaber new species.” On page 124 Freitag wrote “Derivation of specific name. ‒ Specimens of this species appear to be lighter in weight than those of the closely related species faber, which is implied in the name levifaber.” L levi-<-levis1>, light [not heavy]. “The closely related species faber” is Evarthrus faber, which is now named Cyclotrachelus faber.), 

Cyclotrachelus parafaber (a beetle) (See Cyclotrachelus faber and Cyclotrachelus levifaber above in this entry. A synonym of Cyclotrachelus parafaber is Evarthrus parafaber. Epithet parafaber in Evarthrus parafaber was named in 1969 by Richard E. Freitag. Freitag’s description starts on page 122 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/52010194 with “Evarthrus parafaber new species.” G PARA1, beside, near. G PARA1 is commonly used as a prefix in a taxon name to indicate a close relation [“nearness”] to another taxon name or species. Freitag did not give epithet parafaber’s etymology or meaning, but it is clear Freitag is indicating that Evarthrus parafaber has a close relation to Evarthrus faber, which is now named Cyclotrachelus faber.), 

Aeolesthes aurifaber (a beetle) (L auri-1, gold, golden, yellow. A synonym of Aeolesthes aurifaber is Hammaticherus aurifaber. Epithet aurifaber in Hammaticherus aurifaber was named in 1853 by Scottish zoologist Adam White [1817-1878]. White’s description starts on page 128 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20061607 with “HAMMATICHERUS AURIFABER, n. s.” White did not give epithet aurifaber’s etymology and meaning but did write “pilis aureis ornato,” L for “adorned with golden hair.”), 

Conifaber parvus (a spider) (makes a cone-shaped web. G/L coni-1<-cone>, cone. Genus Conifaber and epithet parvus were named in 1982 by United States arachnologist Brent D. Opell. Opell’s descripition starts on page 49 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/50966409 with ‘Conifaber new genus…The genus name is a masculine noun derived from the Latin nouns conus and faber and means “cone craftsman”.’), 

Boana faber (blacksmith treefrog = smith frog) (native to Brazil. A synonym [obsolete name] of Boana faber is Hyla faber. Epithet faber in was named in 1821 by Prussian explorer, ethnologist, and naturalist Alexander Philip Maximilian [1782-1867, -wiedi]. In a footnote on page 247 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/45440078, Maximilian wrote “Ich nenne ihn Hyla Faber…,” German for “I call him Hyla Faber….” I, Ernest Newell Spencer, did not find epithet faber’s etymology and meaning in Maximilian’s text, which was printed in the troublesome Fraktur font. I did not find why this tan-colored frog has the common name blacksmith treefrog.), 

Nyctotheroides faberi (a ciliate—see ciliate) (is a PARAsite on [“belongs to”] Boana faber, which is given above in this entry. source: page 194 in https://hal.science/hal-03865301v1/file/Nana et al Protistology 2022.pdf, which says “N. faberi Carini, 1939, a parasite of Hyla faber.” “N.” is genus Nyctotheroides. Hyla faber is a synonym [obsolete name] of Boana faber. ciliate epithet faberi = blacksmith treefrog epithet faber + L -i2), 

Allocosa faberrima (a spider) (L -rima, to the greatest degree. A synonym [obsolete name] of Allocosa faberrima is Lycosa faberrima. Epithet faberrima in Lycosa faberrima was named in 1910 by French naturalist [specializing in spiders] Eugène Louis Simon [1848-1924, -simoni2]. Simon’s written-in-Latin description starts on page 213 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/37142113 with “Lycosa faberrima, sp. nov.” but Simon did not give epithet faberrima’s etymology and meaning.), 

Agyneta fabra (a spider) (Apparently a synonym [obsolete name] of Agyneta fabra is Erigone fabra. Epithet fabra in Erigone faber was named in 1886 by German arachnologist Graf Eugen Keyserling [1832-1889; his name is also given as Eugen von Keyserling and Eugen Graf von Keyserling]. Keyserling’s written-in-German description starts on page 167 in file:///C:/Downloads/800_Keyserling_1886__2_1_295.pdf with “Erigone fabra n. sp.” but Keyserling did not give epithet fabra’s etymology and meaning.), 

Cyamophila fabra (a psyllid or [also called] jumping plant louse [insect]) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Cyamophila fabra is Psylla fabra. Epithet fabra in Psylla fabra was named in 1964 by female? Russian? zoologist? M.M. Loginova. My search on Psylla fabra stopped at the pay-to-view webpage https://eurekamag.com/research/004/962/004962773.php.), 

Scaptotrigona affabra (a bee) (The type locality is Rondônia, a state in Brazil. Rondônia is outlined in red on the map at www.google.com/maps/place/State+of+Rondônia,+Brazil. A synonym [obsolete name] of Scaptotrigona affabra is Sakagamilla affabra. Genus Sakagamilla and epithet affabra were named in 1989 by Brazilian priest and entomologist Jesus Santiago Moure [1912-2010]. Moure’s description is in www.scielo.br/j/rbzool/a/RtkSYW5M7zChMbwfDH9VZhH/?lang=pt. Moure wrote “encontrei uma espécie muito interessante…,” Portuguese for “I found a very interesting species….” Moure continued [continuing Ernest Newell Spencer’s translation] “which I call Sakagamilla affabra, in honor of Prof. F. Schoichi Sakagami, from Hokkaido University, one of the most industrious entomologists who has ever been in our Department.” Apparently Moure is calling Sakagami—not the bee—affabra, skillful. See -affaber.), 

also see -fabrica, -affaber

██ [A] -faberi2 (Faber + L -i2), [A] -faberiana1 (+ L -iana2<-i2>), [B] -faberia (+ NewL -ia1, genus-and-epithet-making suffix), [A] -fabri (Ld genitive form of Faber), Ld root = [A] Ernst Faber’s (Faber [1839-1899] was a German missionary and plant collector in China. The Ld genitive form of Faber is Fabri, similar to L cancer, crab, and its L genitive cancri, crab’s.): as in

All species in this entry are native to China.

Setaria faberi (gaint foxtail [grass]), 

Styrax faberi (a plant), 

Carex faberiana (a sedge [grasslike wetland plant—see scirpus-]), 

Araiostegiella faberiana (a polypod fern) of polypod-fern order Polypodiales, 

Faberia faberi (a plant), 

Faberia sinensis (a plant) (G sin-<sino-1>, China), 

Acer fabri (Faber’s maple)

██ -faberi3 (Faber + L -i2), Ld root = Faber’s (I, Ernest Newell Spencer, did not find information on the male named Faber.): as in 

Iphiaulax faberi (a wasp) [native to Indonesia. Epithet faberi was named in 1912 by English entomologist (specializing in wasps and related insects) Peter Cameron (1847-1912) and Norwegian botanist, entomologist, and arachnologist Embrik Strand (1876-1947). Strand wrote the original description of Iphiaulax faberi in German. The original description, on page 44 of www.zobodat.at/pdf/Archiv-Naturgeschichte_78A_6_0024-0075.pdf, says, “Lokalität: Peinan, Sumatra (v. Faber).” German Lokalität means location; location here means the type locality, that is, the place where Iphiaulax faberi was first discovered. Peinan is an old or alternate name for Painan, a city at 1.346S 100.581E on Sumatra, an Indonesian island. The “v.” in “v. Faber” is apparently German von, which means from. Strand did not give epithet faberi’s etymology and meaning. Strand did not explain “Faber.”]

██ -faberi4 (Faber + L -i2), Ld root = Albrecht Faber’s (Faber [1903-1986] was a German biologist specializing in the bioacoustics of crickets, grasshoppers, and other insects.): as in 

Callicrania faberi (Faber’s bush-cricket = Faber’s saddle bush-cricket)

██ -faberi5 (Faber + L -i2), Ld root = Walther Faber’s (Faber [1921-1979] was an Austrian entomologist specializing in ants. His name is also given as Walter Faber.): as in 

Leptothorax faberi (an ant) (native to Canada. Epithet faberi was named in 1983 by German entomologist [specializing in ants] Dr. Alfred Buschinger [1940-].)

██ -faberi6 (Faber + L -i2), Ld root = Marien J. Faber’s (Faber [c. 1960-] was a Dutch malacologist. From 1979 to 1984 he pursued a degree in medicine at the University of Amsterdam and then a degree in biology at the University of Amsterdam, but he did not receive a degree. In 2004 he started Miscellanea Malacologica, a periodical containing articles about malacology.): as in 

Alvania faberi (a snail), 

Parthenina faberi (a snail), 

Inella faberi (a snail), 

Neolepton faberi (a clam), 

Oceanida faberi (a snail)

██ -faberiana1, -faberia, see -faberi2

██ [A] -faberiana2 (Faber + L -iana1<-e1>), [B] -tryonia (Tryon + NewL -ia1, genus-and-epithet-making suffix), Ld root = [A] Alice Elizabeth Faber’s (Faber [1920-2009] was a United States pteridologist. In 1945 she married United States pteridologist Rolla Milton Tryon, Jr. [1916-2001] and became Alice Elizabeth Faber Tryon.): as in 

Tectaria faberiana (a polypod fern) and 

Tryonia myriophylla (a polypod fern) of polypod-fern order Polypodiales, 

also see -tryonorum

██ -fabernii (apparently Fabern[a] + L -ii1<-i2>), Ld root = (apparently) Faberna’s: as in 

Diaspidiotus fabernii (a scale [insect—see -coccid]) (first discovered in Cuba in 1909 by United States entomologist James Stewart Hine [1866-1930]. A synonym [obsolete name] of Diaspidiotus fabernii is Aspidiotus fabernii. Epithet fabernii in Aspidiotus fabernii was named in 1918 by United States entomologist John Samuel Houser (1881-1947, -houseri). Houser’s description starts on page 165 in https://reader.library.cornell.edu/docviewer/digital?id=chla5077679_4179_002#page/59/mode/1up with “Aspidiotus fabernii n. sp. Host, Faberna. Locality, Jardin Botanica del Instituto Segnda Ensenada de la Habana (Habana). Date, Jan. 27, 1909. Collector, J. S. H.” Faberna is apparently a certain tree or other plant. Website www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search has no species named Faberna. I did not find a meaning for Faberna in Spanish, French, Latin, Portuguese, Italian, or German. I did not find any place on earth named Faberna. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabernii is accepted and used only in Diaspidiotus fabernii and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabern.] 

██ fabi-, see -faba

██ -fabiani, Ld root = Fabian’s (This Fabian is Fabian Häussermann.): as in 

Isoparactis fabiani (a sea anemone) (native to Chile. Epithet fabiani was named in 2008 by [1] Chilean marine biologist Verena Häussermann [1970-. Her name is also given as Vreni Häussermann.] and [2] Verena’s husband and colleague Günter Försterra [his name is also given as Guenter Foersterra]. Fabian is apparently Verena’s son. Fabian is the brother of Fiona Häussermann [-fionae].)

██ -fable, fable-, fabl-, see -fabula

██ -fabra, see -faber

██ -fabraea, Ld root = Fabrae + NewL -a1<-ia1>, genus-and-epithet-making suffix. (Fabrae is a spelling variation of Fabre. Fabre is French naturalist, entomologist, and author Jean Henri Casimir Fabre [1823-1915]. Root -fabraea means Fabre’s.): as in

Fabraea congener (a fungus) (Genus Fabraea was named in 1881 by Italian botanist and mycologist Pier Andrea Saccardo [1845-1920, -saccardoi]. Fabraea congener is the type species for genus Fabraea. Jean Henri Casimir Fabre sent Saccardo buttercup leaves afflicted with a fungus. Saccardo recognized this fungus as a new genus, which Saccardo first named Favraea after Fabre. Sometimes “b” in a French word gets changed to “v” in Italian. Saccardo later changed genus name Favraea to Fabraea.) and 

Fabraea cincta (pear-leaf blight [fungus]) and 

Neofabraea alba (a fungus) and 

Pseudofabraea citricarpa (a fungus) of fungus family Dermateaceae of fungus order Helotiales,

Phaeofabraea miconiae (a fungus) of fungus family Helotiaceae of fungus order Helotiales

██ -fabri, see -faberi2

██ fabric = L textu-

██ -fabrica, -fabricus, -fabrilis, -fabrile, L root = craft, craftsperson: from 

[1] L fabrica, a craft, an art, craft of metalwork, craft of building, construction, a building, a making, product, workshop ([1a] L fabr[i], genitive and plural of L faber, workman, artisan, craftsman, blacksmith, smith, carpenter, worker [-faber] + [1b] G/L -ica2<-tic>, belonging to or having to do with); and 

[2] L fabrilis (masculine or feminine) or fabrile (neuter), belonging to or having to do with an artificer (skilled worker, first person to think of a certain thing or to make a certain thing): as in 

Paectes fabrica (a moth), 

Finella fabrica (a snail), 

Psectrocladius fabricus (a midge [fly]), 

Otiorrhynchus fabrilis (a beetle), 

Bothriocyrtum fabrile (a spider)

██ -fabricatus, -fabricata, -fabricans, -fabricator, -fabrication, -fabricate, L root = build, invent: from

[1] L fabrico (indicative) or fabricare (infinitive), build, to construct, to fashion, to forge, to shape, to train, get a meal ready, invent, devise;

[2] L fabricatus (masculine) or fabricata (feminine) or fabricatum (neuter), built, constructed, fashioned, forged, shaped, fabricated (perfect passive participle of fabrico or fabricare);

[3] L fabricans or its genitive fabricantis, building, constructing, fashioning, forging, shaping (present active participle of fabrico or fabricare);

[4] L fabricator, artificer (skilled worker, first person to think of a certain thing or to make a certain thing), framer, forger, contriver, fabricator;

[5] L fabricatio, a making, a framing, structure, manner of construction, skilful construction (fabrica[tus] + L -tio, suffix that changes a certain L perfect passive participle [fabricatus] into a L noun [fabricatio]);

[6] L fabricationis, genitive of fabricatio; and

[7] English fabrication (from L fabricationis): as in 

Dictyophimus infabricatus (a radiolarian) of phylum Radiozoa (see chromist) of chromist kingdom Chromista (L infabricatus [masculine] or infabricata [feminine] or infabricatum [neuter] means unwrought, unfashioned, unfinished, rude. L IN1, not. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, infabricatus is accepted and used only in Dictyophimus infabricatus and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabricatu.), 

Aegocera tigrina fabricata (a moth) [In zoology, three words in an animal scientific name indicate a subspecies, a type of infraspecies—see infraspecies (definition).], 

Epidesmia perfabricata (a moth), 

Forcepia fabricans (a sponge), 

Crematogaster dohrni fabricans (an ant), 

Pheidole fabricator (an ant), 

Antrocephalus fabricator (a wasp), 

fab·ri·ca·tion fabrication, pre·fab·ri·ca·tion prefabrication, fab·ri·cate fabricate, pre·fab·ri·cat·ed prefabricated

██ -fabricei (Fabrice + L -i2), Ld root = Fabrice’s (I, Ernest Newell Spencer, did not find information on the male named Fabrice.): as in 

Prosopocoilus fabricei (a scarab beetle) (native to Sulawesi, an Indonesian island at 2.129S 120.738E. Epithet fabricei was named in 1988 by French entomologist [specializing in family-Lucanidae scarab beetles] Jean-Pierre Lacroix [1938-1989]. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabricei is accepted and used only in Prosopocoilus fabricei and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabricei.) of scarab-beetle family Lucanidae. 

Also see -fabricelavalettei; -fabricei may refer to Fabrice Lavalette.

██ -fabricelavalettei (Fabrice Lavalette + L -i2), Ld root = Fabrice Lavalette’s (Lavalette was a French entomologist in the 1900s and 2000s. He specialized in scarab beetles. He was with France’s Ministry of National Education. He worked mainly as an “Independent Researcher” in Cayenne, the capital city, at 4.923N 52.314W, of French Guiana, a countrylike department of France in South America.): as in 

Pelidnota fabricelavalettei (a scarab beetle) (native to French Guiana. Epithet fabricelavalettei was named in 2009 by French entomologist Marc Soula [1945-2012]. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabricelavalettei is accepted and used only in Pelidnota fabricelavalettei and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabricel.) of scarab-beetle family Rutelidae. 

Also see -fabricei, which may refer to Fabrice Lavalette.

██ -fabricia, fabrici-1, see -fabricii1

██ fabrici-2, see -fabriciusi

██ -fabriciae, Ld root = obsolete plant genus Fabricia + L -e2 (Obsolete plant genus Fabricia was named in 1788 by German botanist Joseph Gaertner [1732-1791]. In his 1999 book CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names, Umberto Quattrocchi wrote that plant genus Fabricia was “Presumably dedicated to the German physician Philipp Conrad Fabricius, 1714-1774, botanist.”): as in 

Diplodia fabriciae (a fungus) [lives on (“belongs to”) Leptospermum laevigatum (Australian teatree—plant). A synonym (obsolete name) of Leptospermum laevigatum is Fabricia laevigata. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabriciae is accepted and used only in Diplodia fabriciae and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabriciae.]

██ -fabricianus, -fabriciana, -fabricianum, -fabricianae, see -fabriciusi

██ [A] -fabricii1 (Ld genitive of Fabricius), [B] -fabricia (Fabrici[us] + NewL -a1<-ia1>, genus-and-epithet-making suffix), [C] fabrici-1 (Fabrici[us]), Ld root = [A] Otto Fabricius’ (Fabricius [1744-1822] was a Danish missionary, naturalist, and explorer in Greenland. His name is also given as Otho Fabricius. The Ld genitive of Fabricius is Fabricii.): as in 

Gonatus fabricii (boreoatlantic armhook squid = boreoatlantic gonate squid), 

Centroscyllium fabricii (black dogfish = [Danish] Fabricius sorthaj [fish]), 

Liparis fabricii ([Danish] Fabricius’ ringbug = [Danish] Fabricius ringbug = gelatinous seasnail [snailfish—fish]), 

Fabricia stellaris (a polychaete [any of the class-Polychaeta worms, also called bristle worms. Polychaetes are annelids, which are phylum-Annelida worms, each having many ringed body segments.]) of polychaete family Fabriciidae,

(some polychaete genera in polychaete family Fabriciidae: Fabricia, Echinofabricia, Novafabricia, Parafabricia, Pseudofabricia, Fabriciola [L/French -ola<-olus>, small], Pseudofabriciola, Rubifabriciola, Fabricinuda)

██ -fabricii2 (Ld genitive of Fabricius), Ld root = Friedrich Wilhelm Peter Fabricius’ (Fabricius [1742-1817] was a Danish physician and the brother of Johann Christian Fabricius [-fabriciusi]. The Ld genitive of Fabricius is Fabricii.): as in 

Lapeirousia fabricii (a plant)

██ -fabricii3, see -fabriciusi

██ -fabricioi (Fabricio + L -i2), Ld root = Fabricio’s (This Fabricio is Federico Fabricio Lehmann González [1945-2014], a Colombian. Webpage www.etyfish.org/siluriformes2 calls him a naturalist. His name is also given as “Fabricio Lehmann G.”.): as in 

Callichthys fabricioi (a catfish) [The type locality is Colombia. Epithet fabricioi was named in 1999 by Colombian ichthyologist Cesar Román-Valencia (PhD 2000), Brazilian ichthyologist Pablo César Lehmann Albornoz (PhD 2006; his name is usually given as “Pablo Lehmann A.”), and biologist Ana Muñoz. Webpage www.etyfish.org/siluriformes2 says Callichthys fabricioi was named “in honor of naturalist Fabricio Lehmann G., Popayán (Colombia), who enthusiastically supported the authors’ expedition to the region.” Popayán is a city at 2.446N 76.615W in Colombia. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabricioi is accepted and used only in Callichthys fabricioi and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabricioi.]

██ FABRICIUS. Friedrich Wilhelm Peter Fabricius (physician), see -fabricii2

██ FABRICIUS. Johann Christian Fabricius (botanist, entomologist, arachnologist), see -fabriciusi

██ FABRICIUS. Otto Fabricius (missionary, naturalist, explorer), see -fabricii1

██ [A] -fabriciusi (Fabricius + L -i2), 

[A] -fabricii3 (Ld genitive of Fabricius), 

[A] -fabricianus (Fabrici[us] + L -anus<-i2>), 

[A] -fabriciana (+ L -ana2<-i2>), 

[A] -fabricianum (+ L -anum<-i2>), 

[B] -fabricius, 

[C] fabrici-2 (Fabrici[us]), 

[D] -fabricianae (moth epithet fabriciana + L -e2), Ld root =

[A] Johann Christian Fabricius’ (Fabricius [1745-1808] was [1] a Danish botanist, entomologist, and arachnologist, [2] a student of Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist Carolus Linnaeus [1707-1778, linnae-], and [3] the brother of Friedrich Wilhelm Peter Fabricius [-fabricii2]. Johann Christian Fabricius’ name is also given as Johan Christian Fabricius. The Ld genitive of Fabricius is Fabricii.): as in

Episomus fabriciusi (a beetle) (In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabriciusi is accepted and used only in Episomus fabriciusi and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabriciusi.), 

Membracis fabricii (a treehopper [insect]), 

Hista fabricii (a moth), 

Thanatus fabricii (a spider), 

Onthophagus fabricianus (a beetle), 

Fabriciana niobe (a butterfly), 

Nomada fabriciana (Fabricius’ nomad [bee]), 

Anthophila fabriciana (a moth), 

Hypanthidium fabricianum (a bee), 

Psectrocladius fabricius (a midge [fly]), 

Fabriciopsis hystrix (a fly), 

Eufabriciopsis quadrisetosa (a fly), 

Diadegma fabricianae (a wasp) (is a PARAsite on [“belongs to”] Anthophila fabriciana)

██ -fabricus, -fabrilis, -fabrile, see -fabrica (craft, craftsperson)

██ -fabula, fabula-, -fabulosus, -fabulosa, -fabulosum, fabulos-, -fabularis, fabulari-, fabul-, -fabulus, -fabulum, -fable, fable-, fabl-, fab-2, L root = to talk, to converse, a story, fabulous: from

[1] L feminine noun fabula, a story, tale, narrative, conversation (from L fari, speak, to talk, say);

[2] L fabulor (indicative) or fabulari (infinitive), to chat, to converse, to talk, make up a story (from fabula);

[3] L fabularis or fabulare, you are chatting, you are talking (second-person singular present active form of fabulor);

[4] L fabulosus (masculine—fabul[a] + L -osus, full of, abounding in, like, well, large) or fabulosa (feminine) or fabulosum (neuter), fabulous, celebrated in fable, rich in fables, rich in myths, incredible, great; 

[5] NewL fabulus, masculine form of L fabula; 

[6] NewL fabulum, neuter form of L fabula; and

[7] Old French fable, story, fable, tale, fiction, lie, falsehood (from L fabula): as in

Pegias fabula (littlewing pearlymussel [mussel—see mollusk]) (A synonym [obsolete name] of Pegias fabula is Margaritana fabula. Epithet fabula in Margaritana fabula was named in 1838 by United States malacologist and paleontologist Isaac Lea [1792-1886, -leai1]. Lea’s description starts on page 44 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/26881490 with “MARGARITANA FABULA” but Lea did not give epithet fabula’s etymology and meaning.), 

fab·u·la·tor fabulator, fab·u·la·tion fabulation, con·fab·u·late confabulate, con·fab·u·la·to·ry confabulatory, 

Fabulosus kurilensis (a HYDROzoan) [The 1990 written-in-English-and-Russian description of genus Fabulosus starts on page 6 in www.zin.ru/labs/marine/papers/1990-Stepanjants-Bozhenova-Fabulosus kurilensis.pdf with “Род Fabulosus Stepanjants gen.n.” Page 16 says “Fabulosus (лат. fabulosus - необычный, баснословный),” Latin and Russian for “Fabulosus (Latin fabulosus - unusual, fabulous).” In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, Fabulosus contains only one accepted species (Fabulosus kurilensis).], 

Euodynerus fabulosus (a wasp), 

Anomogyna fabulosa (a moth), 

Begonia fabulosa (a plant), 

Entoloma fabulosum (a mushroom), 

Pleuroprion fabulosum (an isopod—see isopod), 

fab·u·los·i·ty fabulosity, 

Pseudopoda fabularis (a spider) [The 2008 description starts on page 518 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/partpdf/80441 with “Pseudopoda fabularis sp. n.…ETYMOLOGY: The specific name refers to the embolus (Figs 4, 6), which resembles a fabulous creature. Latin: fabularis, -e, meaning legendary, mythical; adjective.” In arachnology an embolus is part of the male spider’s reproductive organ.], 

Fabularia howchini (a foram—see foram and chromist) of foram family Fabulariidae of foram phylum Foraminifera of chromist kingdom Chromista (Genus Fabularia was named in 1820 by French naturalist Jacques Louis Marin Defrance [1758-1850]. Genus Fabularia is listed and discussed in a pertinent 1820 written-in-French dictionary, starting on page 103 in www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/23029138 with “FABULAIRE, Fabularia,” and going to “Nous avons donné à l'espèce que l'on trouve à Grignon le nom de fabulaire discolithe, et à celle qui se trouve à Chaumont, celui de fabulaire sphéroïde,” French for “We have given the species found in Grignon the name of fabulous discolite, and to that found in Chaumont, that of fabulous spheroid.” Defrance was one of the dictionary’s many authors.), 

fab·u·lous fabulous, fab·u·lize fabulize, fab·u·list fabulist, 

Prosorhynchoides fabulus (a trematode [parasitic flatworm, a PLATYhelminth]), 

Stagnicola fabulum (a snail [fossil, extinct]) (In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, fabulum is accepted and used only in Stagnicola fabulum and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters fabulum.), 

fa·ble fable, ef·fa·ble effable, in·ef·fa·ble ineffable, chante·fa·ble chantefable, af·fa·ble affable, af·fa·ble·ness affableness, fab·li·au fabliau and plural fab·li·aux fabliaux, fa·bled fabled, af·fa·bil·i·ty affability (= affableness), in·ef·fa·bil·i·ty ineffability

██ fabulous = L -fabula 

…

██

LATIN ROOT: FUS1, FUSUS, FUSA, FUSUM, FUSIO, FUSION, FUSIONIS, FUSOR, FUSORIUS, FUSORIA, FUSO1, FUND2, FUNDI3, FUNDENS

ETYMOLOGY: from

[1] Latin fundo2 (indicative. Compare with Latin fundo1 at -fundatus.) or fundere (infinitive), pour out, rout one’s opponent (defeat one’s opponent and force one’s opponent into disorderly retreat), scatter one’s opponent, to found ([A] melt and pour metal or glass or such into a mold, [B] form or make or cast an object by putting molten material in a mold), make by smelting, moisten, to wet, extend, spread out, to shed, utter;

[2] Latin -fundo or -fundere, suffix form of fundo2 or fundere (as in

[2a] Latin confundo or confundere, pour or mingle or mix together, stir up, diffuse, suffuse, spread over, unite, join, combine, mingle, jumble together, confound, confuse, bring into disorder, disconcert, perplex,

[2b] Latin diffundo or diffundere, pour out, spread out, to diffuse,

[2c] Latin effundo or effundere, pour out, pour forth, to shed, spread abroad, drain off, drive out, cast out, send out, to shower, to discharge, rush out, cast away, give up, let go, dismiss, resign, give up to, yield to, indulge in, to lavish, squander, expend, to waste, run through, relax, loosen, slacken,

[2d] Latin infundo or infundere, pour in, pour into, pour upon, pour out, to wet, moisten, spread over,

[2e] Latin perfundo or perfundere, pour over, pour through, to wet, moisten, cover with dewdrops, cause to flow out, flow over, drench, bathe, to steep, to dye, scatter or sprinkle over, to cover, to flood, to fill, imbue, inspire,

[2f] Latin profundo or profundere, pour out, pour forth, shed copiously, cause to flow, stretch at full length, to prostrate, cast out, bring forth, to produce, cast or throw away, squander, to vent, exert, set forth, to show, explain,

[2g] Latin refundo or refundere, pour back, pour out, cause to overflow,

[2h] Latin suffundo or suffundere, pour below, pour underneath, pour into, pour among, pour over, pour upon, to overspread, suffuse, to fill, to tinge, imbue, to stain, to color, to blush,

[2i] Latin transfundo or transfundere, pour from one vessel into another, pour off, decant, transfuse, transfer, divert);

[3] Latin fusus1 (masculine) or fusa (feminine) or fusum (neuter), poured out, founded (made by casting), made by smelting, moistened, wet, extended, spread out, shed (as in the snake’s shed skin), uttered (perfect passive participle of fundo2 or fundere. Compare fusus1 with unrelated Latin noun fusus2 at fusi-.);

[4] Latin -fusus or -fusa or -fusum, suffix form of fusus or fusa or fusum (as in

[4a] Latin confusus or confusa or confusum, poured together, mixed, mingled, united, joined, combined, confounded, confused, brought into disorder [perfect passive participle of confundo or confundere],

[4b] Latin diffusus or diffusa or diffusum, poured or spread out, diffused [perfect passive participle of diffundo or diffundere],

[4c] Latin effusus or effusa or effusum, poured out, shed [as in the snake’s shed skin], drained off, driven out, sent out, discharged, given up, wasted, loosened,

[4d] Latin infusus or infusa or infusum, poured in, poured into, poured upon, poured out, moistened,

[4e] Latin perfusus or perfusa or perfusum, poured through, poured over, moistened, perfused, drenched, bathed, imbued, scattered over, covered, flooded, inspired,

[4f] Latin profusus or profusa or profusum, poured forth, poured out, prostrated, brought forth, produced, thrown away, squandered, shown, explained,

[4g] Latin refusus or refusa or refusum, poured back, poured out, caused to overflow,

[4h] Latin suffusus or suffusa or suffusum, poured below, poured underneath, poured into, poured upon, overspread, suffused, tinged, imbued, stained, colored, blushed, bashful, modest,

[4i] Latin transfusus or transfusa or transfusum, poured from one vessel into another, poured off, decanted, transfused, transferred, diverted);

[5] Latin fundens or its genitive fundentis, pouring out, founding (casting molten metal or glass or such), making by smelting, moistening, wetting, extending, spreading out, shedding, uttering (present active participle of fundo2 or fundere);

[6] Latin -fundens or -fundentis, suffix form of fundens or fundentis (as in

[6a] Latin confundens or confundentis, pouring together, diffusing, spreading over, joining, mingling, jumbling together, confusing [present active participle of confundo or confundere],

[6b] Latin diffundens or diffundentis, pouring out, spreading out, diffusing [present active participle of diffundo or diffundere],

[6c] Latin effundens or effundentis, pouring out, spreading out, shedding, draining off, showering, discharging, giving up, wasting,

[6d] Latin infundens or infundentis, pouring in, pouring into, pouring upon, pouring out, moistening,

[6e] Latin perfundens or perfundentis, pouring through, pouring over, moistening, perfusing, drenching, bathing, imbuing, scattering over, covering, flooding, inspiring,

[6f] Latin profundens or profundentis, pouring forth, pouring out, prostrating, bringing forth, producing, throwing away, squandering, showing, explaining,

[6g] Latin refundens or refundentis, pouring back, pouring out, causing to overflow,

[6h] Latin suffundens or suffundentis, pouring below, pouring underneath, pouring into, pouring upon, overspreading, suffusing, tinging, imbuing, staining, coloring, blushing,

[6i] Latin transfundens or transfundentis, pouring from one vessel into another, pouring off, decanting, transfusing, transferring, diverting);

[7] Latin noun fusio, a pouring out, an outpouring, effusion, a melting (especially of metal or glass or such), a founding (especially of metal or glass or such), a casting (especially of metal or glass or such), a duty;

[8] Latin fusionis, genitive of fusio;

[9] Latin -fusio, suffix form of fusio (as in

[9a] Latin noun confusio, a mingling, a mixture, union, a mixing, a uniting, a combining, a confounding, confusion, disorder [from confundo. The genitive of confusio is confusionis. Latin confusionis means belonging to a mingling, belonging to a mixture, etc.], 

[9b] Latin noun diffusio, a spreading out, an extending [from diffundo. The genitive of diffusio is diffusionis.],

[9c] Latin noun effusio, a pouring out, a pouring forth, shedding, a pouring or rushing out of people, profusion, prodigality, extravagance, excess [from effundo. The genitive of effusio is effusionis.],

[9d] Latin noun infusio, a pouring in, a pouring into, a watering, a wetting, infusion [from infundo. The genitive of infusio is infusionis.],

[9e] Latin noun perfusio, a pouring through, a pouring over, a wetting, a flooding, baptism [from perfundo. The genitive of perfusio is perfusionis.],

[9f] Latin noun profusio, a pouring forth, a pouring out, a shedding, effusion, extravagant spending, profusion [from profundo. The genitive of profusio is profusionis.],

[9g] Latin noun refusio, a pouring back, a pouring out, a causing to overflow [from refundo. The genitive of refusio is refusionis.],

[9h] Latin noun suffusio, a pouring or spreading into or among, a pouring over, suffusion, a spreading [said especially of a disease] [from suffundo. The genitive of suffusio is suffusionis.],

[9i] Latin noun transfusio, a pouring from one vessel into another, a pouring off, a decanting, transfusion, a discharge, transmigration of a people, transformation [from transfundo. The genitive of transfusio is transfusionis.]);

[10] Latin fusor, a founder in metals, person who pours out any fluid (from fundo2);

[11] Latin -fusor, suffix form of fusor (as in

[11a] New Latin confusor, person who pours or mingles or mixes together, person who spreads over, person who confuses or perplexes,

[11b] Latin diffusor, person who draws off liquids, spreader,

[11c] Latin infusor, person who pours in,

[11d] Latin perfusor, person who pours water over another person, bath servant [servant who pours water over bathers]);

[12] Latin fusorius (masculine) or fusoria (feminine) or fusorium (neuter), belonging to pouring, molten, belonging to founding, made by founding;

[13] Latin perfusorius (masculine) or perfusoria (feminine) or perfusorium (neuter), merely wetting, merely moistening, slight, superficial, disturbing, wrongful; and

[14] New Latin confusorius, apparently New Latin confusor + Latin -ius1, belonging to or having to do with. (New Latin confusorius is apparently used only in the beetle scientific name Zyras confusorius, which is given below on this mnemonic-cartoon page.)

MNEMONIC CARTOON:

SAMPLE TERMS:

1. re·FUND refund … verb I L RE, back + to pour I give back money

2. trans·FU·SION transfusion … noun I L TRANS, across + to pour I the pouring or passing of a fluid, especially blood, from one place to another, usually through a tube or hose

3, 4. au·to·trans·FU·SION autotransfusion … noun I G AUTO, self + transFUSION<FUS1> I [Medicine] the withdrawal and reinjection of a patient’s blood: also called au·to·he·mo·trans·FU·SION autohemotransfusion (G/L HEMO, blood) § autotransfusion during liver transplantation

5. suf·FUSe suffuse … verb I L SUF<SUB>, under + to pour, to spread I change the look or character of a thing by, or as if by, pouring a fluid under or over that thing’s surface; spread over § Tears suffused Calista’s eyes as her father walked away. / / / Orange light suffuses the sky as the sun sets. / / / A blush suffused Richard’s cheeks. / / / Her family’s love suffused her.

6. pro·FUSe profuse … adjective I G/L PRO, forward + to pour I giving or pouring forth freely § Mr. Hill offered profuse apologies for his crime. / / / profuse applause / / / profuse sweating

7. per·FUSe perfuse … verb I L PER, through + to pour I sprinkle or cover with liquid; soak through with liquid; sufFUSe; pour or pass a liquid through or over something § The priest is about to baptize the baby. The priest will perfuse water on the top of the baby’s head. / / / To filter this raw milk, we perfuse it through this cloth. / / / Blood must constantly perfuse this muscle.

8. ef·FU·Sive effusive … adjective I L EF<EX2>, out + to pour I talking with or showing more feeling than is appropriate; being too emotional; having to do with igneous rock formed from lava that has poured out of the earth; [Archaic] pouring out § Mr. Schagen is always effusive, so you always have to cut through his exaggeration. / / / effusive acting

9. in·FUSe infuse … verb I L IN2, in + to pour I put a quality, idea, emotion, or such into people or things as if by pouring; instill; inspire; [Obsolete] pour in § The coach tries to infuse her team with a desire to win. / / / We must infuse our poor inner-city areas with hope.

10. am·ni·o·in·FU·SION amnioinfusion … noun I G amnio-, amnion (inner membrane of the sac in which the EMbryo<EN1> and fetus develop) + L IN2, in + to pour I [Medicine] infusion of warm salt solution through a tube into the uterus during childbirth labor § transabdominal amnioinfusion

11, 12. in·FUN·DIb·u·lar infundibular or in·FUN·DIb·u·late infundibulate … adjective I L IN2, in + to pour + L bul-2<-bulum>, an implement, instrument, etc. Infundibular and infundibulate are from L infundibulum meaning funnel; see -infundibulum. I [Anatomy] funnel-shaped § an infundibular organ / / / the infundibular end of a fallopian tube / / / the infundibular end of the stalk connecting the pituitary gland to the brain

RELATED SAMPLE TERMS ON OTHER MNEMONIC-CARTOON PAGES: DIFfuse<DIS> … fusion, see MULTIfid

SPECIES WITH SCIENTIFIC NAMES THAT CONTAIN FUS1, FUSUS, FUSA, FUSUM, FUSIO, FUSION, FUSIONIS, FUSOR, FUSORIUS, FUSORIA, FUSO1, FUND2, FUNDI3, FUNDENS:

Juncus diffusissimus (slimpod rush [grasslike wetland plant—see scirpus-]) (L diffus[us], spread out + L -issimus, to the greatest degree. Compared to other genus-Juncus rushes, Juncus diffusissimus has the widest or one of the widest spreading infloreSCENCEs [flower clusters]. The photograph shows the many tiny flowers in a widespread Juncus diffusissimus inflorescence.),

Gastrodia confusoides [left photographs]

Gastrodia confusa [right photographs]

Gastrodia confusoides (an orchid) [Gastrodia confusoides resembles (G/L OIDES<OID>, like, resembling), Gastrodia confusa (an orchid). L confusa means confused, etc. Epithet confusa was named in 1939 by Japanese botanist Masaji Honda (1897-1984; his name is also given as Masazi Hond) and Japanese botanist Takasi Tuyama (1910-2001). Apparently Honda and Tuyama used epithet confusa because, as one reference says, “The parasitic orchid Gastrodia confusa is self-pollinating and never opens its flowers.”],

Rheocricotopus effusoides (a midge [fly]) [resembles Rheocricotopus effusus (a midge). G/L OIDES<OID>, like, resembling. L effusus means poured out, shed, drained off, driven out, sent out, discharged, given up, wasted, loosened. Epithet effusus was named in 1856 by British entomologist Francis Walker [1809-1874, -walkeri6]. Epithet effusus apparently refers to some body part or parts that project out or that are especially prominent compared to related species. Rheocricotopus effusus’s description says “superior volsella prominent, bluntly right-angled or with caudo-mesal triangular or tooth-like projection.” L volsella means a kind of pincers for pulling out hairs, tweezers. Genus-Rheocricotopus midges are in midge family Chironomidae. The photograph shows the rear end of a family-Chironomidae midge’s body; this midge is not Rheocricotopus effusoides or Rheocricotopus effusus but the body parts are similar. All colors in the photograph are only for demonstration. A family-Chironomidae midge has a pair of fingerlike claspers (yellow). Between the claspers are a pair of superior volsella (“upper tweezers,” blue) and a pair of inferior volsella (“lower tweezers,” red).],

Parisotoma confusoculata (a springtail [tiny wingless springing arthroPOD]) (first discovered by New Zealander entomologist, botanist, and photographer John Tenison Salmon [1910-1999] at the confusing type location “New Zealand, Bold Peak, Lake Wakatipu.” Bold Peak is at 44.848S 168.300E in New Zealand. The north limit of Lake Wakatipu is 4 kilometers [2.5 miles] east of Bold Peak. Epithet confusoculata was named in 1944 by John Tenison Salmon. NewL confusoculata = L confus[a], confused, etc. + L oculata, having eyes, having sight, seeing, eye-shaped, visible, conspicuous, easily seen [L OCULUS]. I, Ernest Newell Spencer, did not find what epithet confusoculata refers to. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, confusoculata is accepted and used only in Parisotoma confusoculata and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters confusocu.),

Arrhenophagus confusus (a wasp) [L confusus means confused, etc. Epithet confusus refers to the fact that Arrhenophagus confusus is easily confused with Arrhenophagus chionaspidis (a wasp).], 

Eunemobius confusus (confused ground cricket) [Epithet confusus was named in 1903 by United States entomologist, malacologist, and geologist Willis Stanley Blatchley (1859-1940). Blatchley used epithet confusus because Eunemobius confusus initially confused him. At first, Blatchley thought Eunemobius confusus was Eunemobius carolinus (Carolina ground cricket).],

Pocillopora effusus (cauliflower coral) (L effusus means poured out, sent out, etc. A large colony of Pocillopora effusus looks as though it is poured out across the sea floor.),

Chaetopappa effusa (spreading lazy daisy), 

Dasypeltis confusa (confusing egg eater [snake]) (sometimes confused with other genus-Dasypeltis snakes), 

Capnia confusa (widespread snowfly [insect]) (sometimes confused with other genus-Capnia snowflies), 

Chorizanthe diffusa (diffuse spineflower [plant]) (has several stems that spread radially from a central root and that spread close to the ground), 

Commelina diffusa (climbing dayflower = spreading dayflower), 

Philiris refusa (a butterfly) (native to West Papua, an Indonesian province. A synonym [obsolete name] of Philiris refusa is Holochila refusa. Epithet refusa in Holochila refusa was named in 1894 by British entomologist Henley Grose-Smith [1833-191; his name is also given as Henley Grose Smith]. Grose-Smith’ description starts on page 580 in https://archive.org/details/novitateszoologi01lond/page/580/mode/1up?view=theater with “Holochila refusa sp. nov.” but Grose-Smith did not give epithet refusa’s etymology and meaning. L refusa means poured out, discharged, wasted, etc. I did not find what epithet refusa refers to.),

Lucapina suffusa (cancellate fleshy limpet—see limpet) (It is as though color has sufFUSed under the shell’s surface.),

Triteleia infusa (a wasp) (native to Australia. Epithet infusa was named in 1933 by Australian entomologist [specializing in wasps] Alan Parkhurst Dodd [1896-1981]. L infusa means poured in, poured into, poured upon, poured out, moistened. I did not find what epithet infusa refers to.), 

Tribolium confusum (confused flour beetle) [L confusum means confused, etc. Epithet confusum and “confused” in the common name refer to how Tribolium confusum is often confused with Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle).], 

Gayophytum diffusum (spreading groundsmoke [plant]), 

Eriogonum effusum (spreading buckwheat),

Galium humifusum (spreading bedstraw [plant]) (spreads across the ground. L humi-1, ground),

Philopterus confusio (a louse [insect]) [The type locality is Tabay, a city at 8.6324N 71.070W in Venezuela. This louse was first discovered as a parasite on Turdus fulviventris (chestnut-bellied thrush [bird]). Epithet confusio was named in 1955 by Pakistani entomologist and parasitologist Muhammad Atiqur Rahman Ansari (1911-1979). L confusio means a mingling, a mixture, union, confusion, disorder, etc. I did not find what epithet confusio refers to.],

Vorticella infusionum (a ciliate—see ciliate) of ciliate phylum Ciliophora of chromist kingdom Chromista (L infusionum is the genitive plural of L infusio, a pouring in or into, a watering, a wetting, infusion. Cilia are short hairlike organelles that move back and forth to produce movement and to draw in food. Epithet infusionum was named in 1841 by male French biologist and cytologist Félix Dujardin [1801-1860]. Epithet infusionum apparently here refers to the ongoing inward current [the infusion, the “in pouring”—L IN2, in, on] of water and food particles toward the mouth caused by the cilia’s back-and-forth movements. The circular mouth and the cilia on the mouth’s rim are shown on the photograph’s left.),

Conferva infusionum (a green alga) of green-alga phylum Chlorophyta of plant kingdom Plantae (Epithet infusionum apparently here means belonging to infusions. An infusion is a solution obtained by steeping or soaking. Epithet infusionum was named in year ? by German priest, botanist, and entomologist Franz von Paula Schrank [1747-1835]. I did not find what epithet infusionum refers to.), 

Platymya confusionis (a fly) (The type locality is Franconia, a town at 44.228N 71.747W in New Hampshire, a USA state. A synonym [obsolete name] of Platymya confusionis is Aplomya confusionis. Epithet confusionis in Aplomya confusionis was named in 1943 by United States entomologist [specializing in flies] Wendell Folsom Sellers [1903-1960]. Sellers’ description starts on page 86 in file:///C:/Downloads/USNMP-93_3157_1943.pdf with “APLOMYA CONFUSIONIS, new species” but Sellers did not give epithet confusionis’ etymology and meaning. L confusionis means belonging to a mingling, belonging to a mixture, belonging to confusion, belonging to disorder, etc. I did not find what epithet confusionis refers to.), 

Ichneumon confusor (a wasp) (native to Europe and Russia. Epithet confusor was named in 1820 by German zoologist Johann Ludwig Christian Carl Gravenhorst [1777-1857]. NewL confusor means person who pours or mingles or mixes together, person who spreads over, person who confuses or perplexes. I did not find what epithet confusor refers to. In his 1911 book The Ichneumons of Great Britain, English entomologist [specializing in genus-Ichneumon wasps] Claude Morley [1874-1951] wrote about Ichneumon confusor, saying “I am led…to believe that this species was very little understood by the older authors.” The primary “older author” was Gravenhorst. Perhaps Gravenhorst, adapting the meaning “person who confuses or perplexes,” was trying to say he was confused and/or perplexed by Ichneumon confusor.),

Arotrephes perfusor (a wasp) (native to England, Scotland, and Ireland. Epithet perfusor was named in 1829 by Johann Ludwig Christian Carl Gravenhorst. L perfusor means [1] person who pours water over another person, [2] bath servant. I did not find what epithet perfusor refers to.),

Protichneumon fusorius (a wasp) (native to Europe, Algeria, and the USA. Epithet fusorius was named in 1761 by Swedish physician, botanist, and zoologist Carolus Linnaeus [1707-1778, linnae-]. L fusorius means belonging to pouring, molten, belonging to founding, made by founding. I did not find what epithet fusorius refers to. Perhaps epithet fusorius refers to how the making of a nest by wasps is like the making of an object by metalworkers in a foundry. Wasps mix wood pulp and saliva in their mouths and release the resulting paste to make cells and other parts of the nest. Metalworkers in a foundry heat metal until it becomes molten and then pour the molten metal into molds to make objects.),

Ichneumon perfusorius (a wasp) (native to ?. Epithet perfusorius was named in 1792 by Italian scientist [specializing in entomology] Pietro Rossi [1738-1804, -rossius]. L perfusorius means merely wetting, merely moistening, slight, superficial, disturbing, wrongful. I did not find what epithet perfusorius refers to.),

Zyras confusorius (a beetle) (The type locality is the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Epithet confusorius was named in 1958 by English entomologist Horace Rupert Last [1908-1995]. I did not find what epithet confusorius means or refers to. NewL confusorius is apparently NewL confusor + L -ius1, belonging to or having to do with. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, confusorius is accepted and used only in Zyras confusorius and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters confusorius.),

Conferva infusoria (a green alga) of green-alga phylum Chlorophyta of plant kingdom Plantae (L infusoria is the plural of L infusorium, which means a can, an oil lamp’s reservoir; infusorium is from L infundo, pour in, pour into, pour upon, pour out, to wet, moisten, spread over. Biologists now use infusoria to mean certain tiny aquatic creatures; this was done because the first-discovered infusoria were found in infusions of decaying organic matter. An infusion is a solution obtained by steeping or soaking. Epithet infusoria was named in 1791 by German priest, botanist, and entomologist Franz von Paula Schrank [1747-1835]. Conferva infusoria is the only species scientific name in www.algaebase.org that contains fusoria.),

Confusoscolytus confusus (a weevil [snout beetle]) (native to ?. G/NewL -scolytus<-scolyptus>, short. Genus Confusoscolytus and epithet confusus were named in 1962 by Chinese entomologist Pang Hwa Tsai [his name is also given as Tsai Pang-Hwa] and Chinese entomologist Fusheng Huang [his name is also given as Huang Fusheng or Huang Fu-Sheng]. Page 59 in https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1163&context=gbnm shows that the type species of weevil genus Confusoscolytus is the weevil Eccoptogaster confusus. Epithet confusus in Eccoptogaster confusus was named in 1922 by German entomologist [specializing in beetles] Hans Eggers [1873-1947]. Apparently Tsai and Huang named Confuso- and confusus in Confusoscolytus confusus after epithet confusus in Eccoptogaster confusus.), 

Galium diffusoramosum (a plant) (The type locality is the Coquimbo Region of Chile. Epithet diffusoramosum was named in 1981 by United States botanist Lauramay Tinsley Dempster [1905-1997] and Austrian botanist Friedrich Ehrendorfer [1927-2023]. apparently L diffus[um], poured or spread out + infix -o- + L -ramosum<rami->, a branch, twig. Like Galium humifusum, shown above on this mnemonic-cartoon page, Galium diffusoramosum puts out many long branches that spread in all directions. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, diffusoramosum is accepted and used only in Galium diffusoramosum and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters diffusor.),

Lygocoris diffusomaculatus (a plant bug [insect]) (native to China. Epithet diffusomaculatus was named in 2001 by Chinese entomologist Nan Lu [his name is also given as Lu Nan] and Chinese entomologist Leyi Zheng [his name is also given as L.Y. Zheng, Zheng Leyi, and Zheng Le-yi]. apparently L diffus[us], poured or spread out + infix -o- + L maculatus, stained, spotted [maculi-]. This plant bug apparently has one or more fuzzy spots on its body. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, diffusomaculatus is accepted and used only in Lygocoris diffusomaculatus and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters diffusom.), 

Grammothele effusoreflexa (a fungus) (native to India. Epithet effusoreflexa was named in 1936 by mycologist-from-India S.N. Banerjee. apparently L effus[a], poured out, sent out, etc. + infix -o- + L reflexa, turned back, turned away, reflected. Apparently some part of Grammothele effusoreflexa projects out and bends or curls up, down, or backwards. In www.catalogueoflife.org/data/search, effusoreflexa is accepted and used only in Grammothele effusoreflexa and is the only accepted taxon name with the letters effusor.), 

Heliacus infundibuliformis (channeled sundial [snail]) (The shell resembles a funnel. L infundibuli-, funnel + L FORMIS<FORM>, form. L infundibuli- is from L infundibulum, funnel [L IN2, in + L FUNDI3<FUS1>, to pour + L -bulum, an implement]. The shell’s underside is concave, somewhat matching a funnel.),

Feliniopsis confundens (a moth) (native to Sri Lanka. Epithet confundens was named in 1857 by British entomologist Francis Walker [1809-1874, -walkeri6]. L confundens means pouring together, diffusing, spreading over, joining, mingling, jumbling together, confusing. Apparently Walker wanted epithet confundens to refer to the “jumbling together” of this moth’s colors, spots, and patterns.),

Argyrostrotis diffundens (a moth) (Epithet diffundens, named in 1858 by Francis Walker, almost certainly refers to this moth’s soft, patternless colors. L diffundens means pouring out, spreading out, diffusing.),

Generally when a biologist uses diffundens, effundens, infundens, or suffundens in a species scientific name, the biologist is referring to a spot or band or zone of color on the species body.

Xestia effundens (a moth), 

Radara infundens (a moth), 

Eutelia suffundens (a moth),

Argyrosticta aurifundens (a moth) (It is as though gold [L auri-1] is pouring out [L fundens, pouring out, spreading out, etc.] of the wings and body.)

MORE: also see -fundatus, -infundibulum

…

End of A-to-Z (Section 2)

Section 3: GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH HISTORY

ENGLISH HISTORY HIGHLIGHTS.

Before England was called England, it was called Britannia. English did not originate in Britannia or England.

In the A.D. 400s the West Germanic dialect that would develop into English was brought to Britannia by three groups of West Germanic people, they being some Angles, some Saxons, and some Jutes. These immigrating-into-Britannia West Germanic people came to be called the English. The word English came into use in the 800s; English derives from the Old English word Englisc meaning “of the Angles.” The Angles took their name from the angle or hook shape of their homeland, the region where present-day Denmark borders present-day Germany. During the 400s and 500s the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes pushed out most of Britannia’s native Celtic people, the Britons.

Latin was the language of the ancient Romans. The Romans absorbed much from Greek culture, including great numbers of Greek words. A person who learns Latin learns some Greek. Latin mixed with West Germanic from about A.D. 50 into the 300s as Romans and West Germanic people moved deep into each other’s territory for the sake of trade and military alliance. Millions of West Germanic people came to live within the Roman Empire; some joined the Roman army. 

From about A.D. 80 to 436 Britannia was part of the Roman Empire. Although the Britons learned some Latin during these 350 years, Roman control over Britannia had little influence on English because Angles, Saxons, and Jutes were only beginning to arrive in Britannia during the years the Romans were leaving. 

Another avenue for the flow of Latin into English opened around A.D. 600 as the Roman Catholic Church began converting the heathen English to Christianity.…

…

GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLISH CHRONOLOGY.

This chronology shows of the development of Greek, Latin, and English.

Every text entry in this chronology starts with an abbreviation-number code. Nearly every text entry matches a corresponding abbreviation-number code on a map above the text entry.

This section’s abbreviations are: c. = Latin circa, meaning [1] around, [2] about, [3] approximately … AFrican (red indicates the abbreviation, typical) … ARab … BRiton … CEltic … CHinese … ETruscan … FRench … GErmanic … Greek … IE Indo-European … ITalic … Latin … mE Middle English … ME Modern English … MESopotamian … nFR Norman French … OE Old English … ON Old Norwegian … PHoenician … SUmerian … wGE West Germanic.

An abbreviation-number code in italics (CH1, G6, L3, or such) is a text-only entry. This type of entry has no corresponding abbreviation-number code on any map.

…

IE1 c. 6000 B.C. Start of the Indo-Europeans. The Indo-Europeans were primitive farmer-herders who lived in semipermanent settlements in the Danube River valley. (Some experts believe the Indo-European homeland was the Dnieper River valley in central Ukraine. Others believe the Indo-European homeland was somewhere between Berlin, Germany, and Warsaw, Poland.) The Indo-Europeans’ language was Indo-European, the ancestor of nearly all European languages, including English, and many Asian languages.

CH1 c. 5000-c. 4000 B.C. Earliest-known written characters. (The characters—early forms of 5, 7, and 8—were found on pottery fragments in 1962 near Sian in the Shensi province, China.)

IE2 c. 4000 B.C. Indo-Europeans started slowly spreading as their population increased.

MES1 c. 4000 B.C. Acclaimed start of writing. Location: MESOpotamia. Characters were made by stamping panels of wet clay with a tool that left small wedge-shaped marks; see cuneiFORM.

GE1 c. 3800 B.C. Start of Common Germanic (also called Primitive Germanic, Proto-Germanic, or Germanic), a major Indo-European dialect (and the ancestor of all Germanic languages, including English).

SU1 c. 3500-c. 2000 B.C. Sumeria, earliest-known state.

G1 c. 3000-c. 1100 B.C. Minoan civilization. It had grand palaces, priest kings, a strong navy, and skillful metal craftsmen.

G2 c. 2000 B.C. Primitive Greeks, Indo-European descendants, moved into Greece and mixed with non-Indo-European natives.

IT1 c. 2000-c. 1200 B.C. Primitive hunter-gatherer tribes speaking an Indo-European dialect called Italic moved into northern Italy and began Iron Age technology.

G3 c. 1700-c. 1100 B.C. Mycenaean civilization. It was similar to the Minoan civilization. It had massive fortresses. Its people were lovers of gold.

PH1 c. 1500 B.C. The alphabet (also called the Phoenician alphabet) was invented in Phoenicia. Before the alphabet all writing used characters that were pictures or marks representing a word or a concept. Phoenicians assigned each consonant sound to a letter. Letters were joined to make a word—a great simplification. (Some scholars believe all modern alphabets, including such exotic ones as the Arabic alphabet, trace back to the Phoenician alphabet.)

G4 c. 1500-c. 1200 B.C. Writings in the Minoan alphabet. This alphabet was not used after c. 1200 B.C.

IT2 c. 1500-c. 800 B.C. Italic split into several dialects, including Latin, as Italic people moved to various places. (All that is left today of some of these dialects are a few brief inscriptions.)

G5 c. 1200-c. 800 B.C. c1200 B.C.: Dorians from the region of Doris started destroying Mycenaean cities and culture. c1200-800 B.C.: the Dark Ages of Greece, a period with little or no writing.

ET1 c. 800 B.C. Etruscan colonists settled 12 independent cities in Italy, bringing a highly civilized culture. The Etruscans’ language has never been decoded.

G6 c. 800-c. 700 B.C. The Greeks revised the Phoenician alphabet by letting some letters represent vowel sounds. The Greek alphabet had only capital letters. 725 B.C.: date of earliest known writing using the Greek alphabet.

…

End of Greek, Latin, and English History (Section 3)

———— E N D  O F  E X C E R P T S ————

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