Corruption and the Dictatorship of Sulla

Born in 168 BCE, Tiberius Gracchus made a name for himself through his time in the military. A competent solider, he participated in the Siege of Carthage (146) and held a Quaestorship in 137 BCE — solidifying his reputation as a rising star back in Rome. However, it was during his military service that this future revolutionary would first embrace a more radical form of politics.

Whilst travelling through Italy on his way to Spain, he noticed a growing trend within Roman society. As fresh lands were conquered and new territory brought under Roman control, a massive surplus of slaves had become available. Tiberius Gracchus saw the impact of this first-hand, with large estates across Italy being worked primarily by slave labor — as opposed to the traditional peasant class (who now saw themselves out of a job).

Upon becoming Tribune in 133 BCE, Tiberius saw his chance to champion the cause of the peasantry. He introduced legislation to help alleviate economic inequality through a bill on land reform. This involved the redistribution of land in the form of allotments, with this land coming from the larger estates that dominated the Italian countryside.

Due to the controversial nature of his bill, Tiberius opted to bypass the Senate completely and take his law to the Popular Assembly. After much back and forth, including the deposition of his fellow tribune Octavius, his bill was passed and a commission was established.

Tiberius would pay a heavy price for this attempt at genuine reform. After announcing his intention to stand for his second tribunate — a move which broke with past protocol — calls in the Senate were made to destroy what they saw as a tyrannical power grab. A mob was raised, and the end result was the death of Tiberius Gracchus in the temple of Jupiter Cappitolinus, with 300 of his followers being brutally clubbed to death.

The cycle of violence would continue with Gaius Gracchus, the younger Gracchi brother. Gaius Gracchus was already on the land commission instigated by his brother, and had successfully served as tribune in 123 BCE before taking up a second term the year after. Gaius used his position to target the opponents of Tiberius — alongside continuing with his land reform program. Spurred forward by the death of his brother, Gaius would also introduce his own measures through a corn subsidy targeted at the poor. However, it was not to be. As tensions rose again, mobs were formed by both sides. Just as a few years prior, the Senate came out on top — with Gaius murdered in the ensuing confrontation.

Although both of the Gracchi brothers would face violent deaths, their legacy would live on. Internal violence had now returned to the republic, with the Senate sending a clear message — mess with us, and face death.

In late 2nd century BCE, Rome was pulled into a series of conflicts, starting with the Jugurthine War against the African kingdom of Numidia. Out of it came a new hero, the consul Gaius Marius.

Marius became extremely popular and was elected to a second consecutive term as consul in order to fight the Celtic and Germanic invasions to the north. It was against Roman law for one person to be consul twice in a row, but the people had come to believe that only Marius' military prowess could save them. Marius would end up being consul a total of seven times.

With unprecedented power, Marius reorganized the Roman military, transforming it from a body of volunteers into a professional army. Marius also introduced a new relationship with Rome's Italian allies, collectively called the socii. Marius opened up military service to people in Italy's other kingdoms and cities in order to fight his wars, giving them a path through which to gain Roman citizenship and all the rights therein.

Unfortunately, Marius' reputation would not last. Riots against the Senate arose in Rome, and Marius was forced to intervene. This cost him his popularity with the people, giving the Senate a chance to reclaim power and they began reneging on the promise of citizenship to non-Roman Italian soldiers. This would lead to the socii too revolting against Rome, sparking the Social War, a conflict that would tear apart central and southern Italy.

Rome’s first civil war stemmed from a ruthless power struggle between the politician-generals Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. The bad blood between the two men went back several years—Marius had once taken credit for one of Sulla’s military achievements—and it finally led to war in 88 BCE, when Marius outmaneuvered Sulla to win command of the Roman legions in a conflict with King Mithridates of Pontus. Furious at having lost his chance at glory, Sulla marshaled his forces and led them in a march on Rome. It was a controversial move—no general had ever entered the city under arms—but Sulla soon swept aside Marius’ supporters and forced his rival to flee to Africa.

After tightening his grip on Rome, Sulla gathered his legions and struck out after King Mithridates. No sooner had he left than the city than it plunged back into civil war. A blood-soaked struggle erupted between the plebian “Populares” faction and Sulla’s upper class “Optimates,” and Marius emerged from hiding, reclaimed the city and ruled it as a tyrant. 

Sulla was forced to march his 40,000 troops on Rome a second time. After routing an army led by Marius’ son (Marius had since died of old age), he installed himself as dictator and executed thousands of opposition politicians and nobles. Sulla eventually stepped down and went into voluntary retirement in 79 BCE, but his brief power grab weakened the foundations of the Roman Republic. It would only take a few more decades before they began to crumble.