38. A Novel Front-End Processing Method of Industrial Beet Juice Extraction:

A novel simplified front-end processing (FEP), which is less expensive, energy efficient, and involved only common equipment (hammer mill and basket press), was developed and tested. The hammer mill pulverized the beets and basket press extracted the juice. Frozen beets consistently produced significantly high concentration juice followed by fresh-frozen, thawed, and fresh beets. Freezing had a beneficial effect in increasing the cumulative approximate sugar extracted. Two presses for fresh (92%) and three for frozen (97%) beets extracted the most available sugars. This new FEP efficiently extracts industrial beet juice and has direct scope in industry deployment as well as enhances the potential of the fuel generated being recognized as an advanced biofuel by the renewable fuel standards.

(Ref.: Pothula et al., 2014, Biomass and Bioenergy 68: 161-174)

37. Identification of Nodes and Internodes of Chopped Biomass Stems:

Nodes and internodes of chopped stems are clearly distinct in visual observation, but difficult to separate using the equipment. Digital image analysis using pixel color variation along the length was used as the principle of identifying the nodes and internodes. An algorithm in MATLAB was developed to evaluate the gray value intensity within a narrow computational band along the major axis of nodes and internodes. The unit area under normalized gray value curve was the best feature/ parameter for the identification of the nodes and internodes with an accuracy of about 96.6%.

(Ref.: Pothula et al., 2014, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 105: 54-65)

36. Biomass Bales Infield Aggregation Logistics Scenarios

Biomass bales often need to be aggregated (collected into groups and transported) to a field- edge stack or a temporary storage before utilization. Several logistics scenarios for aggregation involving equipment and aggregation strategies were modeled and evaluated. A computer simulation program developed in Java determined bale coordinates in ideal and random layouts that evaluated aggregation scenarios. Great savings on cumulative distances that directly influence time, fuel, and cost were realized when the number of bales handled was increased or additional equipment was utilized.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2014, Biomass Bioenergy 66: 12-26)

35. Particle Size Distribution (PSD) by Machine Vision ΣVolume Approach

A new approach of employing the sum of volumes (ΣVolume) as weighting factor was developed and utilized in the ASABE standard PSD analysis. The plugin also evaluated 22 significant dimensions characterizing samples and 21 PSD parameters. The machine vision approach used a user-coded ImageJ plugin that processed the digital image in a sieveless manner and automated the PSD analysis.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2012, Power Technology 215-216: 1377-146)

34. Corn Stalk Orientation Effect on Mechanical Cutting:

Cutting force-deformation characteristics, obtained with a universal testing machine using a modified Warner-Bratzler device, were analyzed to evaluate the orientation effects at perpendicular (90°), inclined (45°), and parallel (0°) orientations on internodes and nodes for cutting force, energy, ultimate stress, and specific energy of corn stalks. The parallel orientation (along the grain) compared to perpendicular (across the grain) produced a significant reduction of the cutting stress and the specific energy to one-tenth or better for internodes, and to about one-fifth for nodes.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2010, Biosystems Engineering 107: 97-106)

33. Macro-Porosity of Wood Pellets:

Accurate direct measurement of macro-porosity of wood pellets in bulk was not readily available. The developed novel method utilized the geometrical (cylindrical) shapes of the pellets. The rough ends of the pellets were sanded to form perfect cylinders, and whose volume can be determined using the mathematical formula from the measured dimensions. Filling a known volume with such “cylindrical” pellets, whose original volume is already known, the macro-porosity can be easily determined.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2009, ASABE Paper No. 096022)

32. Sieveless Machine Vision based Particle Size Distribution:

The standard mechanical sieving method was shown to produce significant misclassification owing to “falling-through” effect of longer particles through sieve perforations. A sieveless machine vision based method was developed that produced a true-classification of all identified distinct length particles and analyzed for particle size distribution (PSD) as well as several PSD related parameters automatically. It was found that more than 50 or 75 sieves were required to match the PSD obtained from the sieveless method based on distinct particles grouping (virtual sieves).

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2009, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 66: 147–158)

31. Airborne Wood Pellet Dust Size Distribution by Computer Vision:

Size and size distribution of airborne dust particles require highly expensive sophisticated instruments (e.g. laser diffraction, Coulter counter). The developed technique uses an inexpensive scanner and free open source ImageJ software. The developed user-coded plugin measured the length and width of the airborne particles and analyzed the particle size distribution, and the results were output in graphical and text formats.

(Ref: Igathinathane et al., 2009, Powder Technology 196: 202–212)

30. Dimension Measurements of Particles by Machine Vision:

Most of the available image processing software fit an ellipse for each particle and report the major and minor axes, which always were demonstrated to deviate from the particles actual length and width. Two Java plugins based on 1) shape identification and correction factors and 2) pixel marching from centroid were developed to properly measure the orthogonal dimensions of convex objects from their images.

(Ref.: C. Igathinathane et al., 2009, Food Research International 42: 76–84)

29. Dimensional Measurement of Chicken Breast by Computer Vision:

Consistent, accurate, and non-contact measurements of irregularly shaped chicken breast dimensions (length and width) were determined from the digital images. The developed machine plugin extracted the boundary profile, performed a rotational transformation on the profile, established the enclosure box from which evaluated the length and width.

(Machine vision plugin was developed (2009) in Java and run with ImageJ)

28. Linear Knife Grid Size Reduction Shearing Device:

A linear knife grid device with cross-lapped knifes, which allows for three different spacing (1", 2", and 4"), capable of determining the cutting characteristics of fibrous biomass was designed, fabricated, and successfully tested. This experimental device demonstrated that the shear dominant cutting operation would be the most energy efficient (≈ 1/4 energy for corn stover, and ≈ 1/10 for switchgrass) when compared to the reported hammer-mill based energy values.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2009, Biomass and Bioenergy 33: 547-557)

27. Corn Stover Hygroscopic Moisture Sorption from its Components:

Method of “mass proportions” of different corn stover fractions such as stalk, leaf, and husk was utilized to estimate the whole corn stover hygroscopic (moisture adsorption from the humid air) behavior from the individual fractions sorption kinetics. The nomogram and the model developed can be used to estimate the maximum resulting moisture content of whole corn stover when subjected to the most extreme RH of 95% and commonly occurring temperatures between 20°C and 40°C.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2009, Applied Engineering in Agriculture 25: 65-73)

26. Cutting Force Measurement using Digital Torque Wrench:

Garden lopper attached with a socket in combination with digital torque wrench rapidly measures the force or energy required to cut biomass. Such measurement usually needs an expensive universal testing machine, which was used only for calibration of this simpler inexpensive technique. A clear linear calibration relationship was observed.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2008, ASABE Paper No. 084111)

25. Simulation of Mechanical Sieving for Particle Size Distribution by Machine Vision:

Standard particle size distribution method using mechanical sieves and shaker, a routine laboratory procedure, was simulated using images of particles. The algorithm used the ASAE S424.1 standards, reported the standard outputs, and suggested the selection of sieves for a balanced distribution of material on sieves. The provision was also made to manually select the sieves for analysis.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2008, ASABE Paper No. 084126)

24. Field Drying Baskets for In-situ Moisture Relation Measurement of Corn Stover:

Measurements of moisture relation such as moisture desorption and adsorption of corn stover biomass in the field condition were challenging. The measurement on the field was carried out efficiently using the designed and fabricated 2.5 ´ 2.5 m steel baskets loaded with stover. This in-situ measurement of the experimental material ensured continuous accurate moisture relation data for further analysis.

(Ref.: Womac et al., 2005, TRANS of the ASAE 48: 2073−2083)

23. Development of Modified Warner-Bratzler Shear Testing Device:

The original Warner-Bratzler shear device has a blunt edge notched plate (blade) that was actually meant for testing the toughness or tenderness of meat, fish, sausages, and similar softer materials. To test the tougher biomass materials, the business edge of the notched blade was modified into a sharp cutting edge, hence termed as “Modified Warner-Bratzler” shear device. In combination with a universal testing machine this device was successfully utilized to test the cutting strength of individual stems of switchgrass, corn stalk, wheat straw, and hickory wood, and could be extended to similar biomass.

(Sharp edge blade of modified Warner-Bratzler device (developed in 2005) cutting a corn stalk sample)

17. Laboratory Model Accelerated Tempering Vessel:

The designed and fabricated accelerated tempering vessel has the provision for controlling the vacuum, monitoring the relative humidity and vacuum, measuring the grain temperature, and quick loading and unloading features.

(Ref.: Igathinathane and Chattopadhyay, 2002, Biosystems Engineering 83: 97–105)

14. Viscosity Measurement of Liquids Using Simple Burette:

The time required to discharge a given volume from a burette is a function of the liquid’s viscosity. Calibration equations were developed to correlate the non-dimensional discharge time and the actual viscosity using standard Redwood viscometer.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2005, Instrumentation Science and Technology 33: 101–125)

13. Weirs with Simplified Discharge Equation - Parabolic Weir:

The discharge equations of all the sharp crested weirs generally have 1/3, 3/2 and 5/2 as exponents of the head (water depth) causing the flow. These fractional indices make the calculation difficult by hand. Mathematically derived weir profile that has 2 as the exponent of the head was parabolic in shape. Four weirs were designed, fabricated and tested.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2007, Biosystems Engineering 96:111– 119)

12. Photovoltaic Leaf Area Meter:

The leaf area meter based on the novel idea of utilizing the solar photovoltaic panel of the solar lantern was designed, developed and tested successfully. The principle of area measurement was correlating the variation in the voltage produced by the panel due to the obstruction caused by the samples to the lamp radiation and area determined from the developed calibration equations. Errors observed from the leaf samples tested varied from -3.37 to -0.13%.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2008, International Journal of Food Properties 11:53-67)

11. Mathematical Modeling of Tempering of Parboiled Paddy:

Solving diffusion equation using prolate spheroidal coordinate system with multi-component prolate spheroid geometry using finite difference method simulated the tempering process. Insulated boundary condition made the moisture to flow from inside and equilibrate eventually.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2008, Journal of Food Engineering 88: 239-253)

10. Software for Leaf Area Measurement:

A software which mimics the action of digital planimeter was developed in “Visual Basic.” Several dimensional parameters including the area were derived from the drawn profile. Provisions in the software were made to automatically connect the ends, erase the profile for correction purpose, fill the bounded area with any color, and record the point’s coordinates and other results in tabular and file format.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2006, Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 51: 1–16)

9. Combinational Hot Soaking of Paddy:

Soaking of rough rice is the most time-consuming operation in the parboiling process. A combination soaking procedure, involving 80°C water as the first-stage until an intermediate moisture content of 35.0% d.b., followed by 70°C as the second-stage up to the saturation moisture content of 42.7% d.b., resulted in a 67% time reduction when compared with single-stage soaking at 70°C. Based on this procedure a two-stage soaking operation separated around the gelatinization temperature can be recommended to grains that a need soaking operation in the processing flow.

(Ref.: Igathinathane et al., 2005, Transactions of the ASAE 48: 665−671)

8. Accelerated Tempering in Multi-pass Drying:

Conventional tempering of parboiled paddy is a time-consuming operation (6 to 8 h, or overnight). The new accelerated tempering process utilized vacuum to enhance the moisture diffusion, thereby achieving quicker completion. When compared with the control method (atmospheric pressure), a time reduction of 72% in the total processing time at 700 mm of Hg of vacuum was obtained.

(Ref.: Igathinathane and Chattopadhyay, 2002, Biosystems Engineering 83: 97-105)

6. Surface Area of Ellipsoids – Method of Triangles:

Developed mathematical computer model evaluated the surface area considering the surface of the ellipsoid as a network of triangles in three-dimensional space (wire-frame model of surfaces). Owing to symmetry, it is enough to consider one eighth (1^st octant) of the surface.

(Ref.: Igathinathane and Chattopadhyay, 1998, Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 70: 313-322)

5. Ready Reckoner Table of Surface Area of Ellipsoids: Based on the method of triangles and employing non-dimensionalizing technique a ready reckoner surface area table was developed, which required only the principal dimensions of the ellipsoids.

(Ref.: Igathinathane and Chattopadhyay, 1998, Journal of Food Engineering 36: 233-247)

2. Mathematical Modeling of Drying of Parboiled Paddy:

Diffusion equation simulating drying process was solved with prolate spheroidal coordinate system (PSCS) considering paddy as a multi-component prolate spheroid using finite difference method. PSCS was never used in the area of food engineering mathematical modeling. Diffusion coefficients of the parboiled paddy components, such as starch, bran and husk were determined.

(Ref.: Igathinathane and Chattopadhyay, 1997, Journal of Food Engineering 41: 89-101)

1. Mathematical Modeling of Pre-conditioning of Wheat:

Moisture diffusion equation in the spherical coordinate system was solved using finite difference method to simulate pre-conditioning process of wheat. Diffusion coefficients of wheat starch and bran were determined, using which the moisture profiles during conditioning were evaluated.

(Ref.: Igathinathane and Chattopadhyay, 1997, Journal of Food Engineering 31: 185-197)