Unit 4a: Intellectual Revolutions

The Renaissance ideals of logic and rational thought influenced the growth of the scientific thinking, while the printing press and the rise of literacy influenced its spread. Based on observation, experimentation, and new forms of mathematics, scientists challenged the medieval and classical views of the universe, man, and his place in nature. Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton developed the theory of heliocentrism, while anatomical discoveries by scientists like William Harvey challenged Galen's idea of the four humors, which had been the basis of medical theory since the ancient Roman era. Deductive and inductive reasoning, experimentation, and mathematical proof were promoted by Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes, eventually leading to the formation of the scientific method and constituting the Scientific Revolution. Initially scientific discoveries were censored by both religious and secular authorities, but gradually rulers came to see the advantages of using science to enhance their power. Traditional beliefs in alchemy, astrology, and the power of divine and demonic powers continued to to influence people throughout the period, and also served to keep most women from participating in the new sciences.

Source: Western Civilization, Spielvogel, pg. 472

During the Enlightenment the rationalism of scientific thought was applied to political and economic ideas. Traditional societal and religious ideas were challenged by Voltaire and Diderot, who promoted enlighten despotism and deism, while Locke and Rousseau came up with new political models that challenged absolutism, involving the concepts of natural law and natural rights, and changed European's views of native peoples. Adam Smith's writings about free trade and a free-market economy challenged old mercantilist theory. Arguments over the extent to which women should benefit from these rights developed, even as women participated in salons and other aspects of enlightened culture. The Baroque arts, which had been used by rulers to promote their power, gave way to art and literature that reflected the values of the enlightened middle class.

Source: Western Civilization, Spielvogel, pg. 499

In the eighteenth century powerful states developed in central and eastern Europe ruled by enlightened despots like Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, and Frederick II of Prussia.

Source: Western Civilization, Spielvogel, pg. 528

Key Concepts

1.1.IV: New ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body, although existing traditions of knowledge and the universe continued.
- 1.1.IV.A: New ideas and methods in astronomy led individuals, including Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton, to question the authority of the ancients and traditional knowledge, and to develop a heliocentric view of the cosmos.
- 1.1.IV.B: Anatomical and medical discoveries by physicians, including William Harvey, presented the body as an integrated system, challenging the traditional humoral theory of the body and of disease espoused by Galen.
- 1.1.IV.C: Francis Bacon and René Descartes defined inductive and deductive reasoning and promoted experimentation and the use of mathematics, which would ultimately shape the scientific method.
- 1.1.IV.D: Alchemy and astrology continued to appeal to elites and some natural philosophers, in part because they shared with the new science the notion of a predictable and knowable universe. At the same time, many people continued to believe that the cosmos was governed by spiritual forces.
Key Concept 2.3: The spread of Scientific Revolution concepts and practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
- 2.3.I. Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism, skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge, challenged the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith.
- 2.3.II. New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
- 2.3.III. New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism.
- 2.3.IV. During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.
- 2.3.V. The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power to an emphasis on private life and the public good.

Guiding Questions

1. How did new ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body?

2. How did new ideas and methods in astronomy lead individuals including Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton to question the authority of the ancients and traditional knowledge and to develop a heliocentric view of the cosmos?

3. How did anatomical and medical discoveries by physicians, including William Harvey, challenge the traditional humoral theory of the body and of disease espoused by Galen?

4. What shaped the scientific method?

5. How did intellectuals, including Voltaire and Diderot, begin to apply the principles of the Scientific Revolution to society and human institutions?

6. Locke and Rousseau developed new political models based on the concept of natural rights and the social contract.

7. Despite the principles of equality espoused by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, intellectuals such as Rousseau offered controversial arguments for the exclusion of women from political life

8. How was Enlightenment culture explored & disseminated?

9. Political theories, including John Locke’s, conceived of society as composed of individuals driven by self-interest and argued that the state originated in the consent of the governed (i.e., a social contract) rather than in divine right or tradition

10. What new ideas challenged mercantilist theory and practice?

11. How did Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism, skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge, challenge the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith?