Working memory is where information is processed either from the environment or from long-term memory. If too much strain is placed on working memory then learners may get confused, frustrated and give up. Reducing this strain or ‘cognitive load’ involves planning effective learning opportunities which uses both the large capacity of the long-term memory and the more limited working memory. The working memory capacity of your students will vary, so something that might overload one student won’t necessarily overload another. One way of the ways to do this is through dual-coding theory, processing information both visually and verbally. Long-term memory can be seen as infinite, whereas working memory should be seen as short term and finite.

Schema

A schema is a mental structure that corresponds to an object, an idea, a collection of information, concrete or abstract that the brain is thinking about. Schemas are important for two reasons:

1. they allow us to draw up a strong understanding of a problem or situation fairly rapidly

2. they free up our working memory to allow us to work on ways to solve a problem or complete a task

Working memory treats an established schema as a single item, and a highly practiced "automated" schema barely counts at all. So, learning activities that draw upon your existing knowledge expands the capacity of your working memory.

This means that teaching learners prerequisite skills before introducing a more complex topic, will help them establish schemas that extend their working memory; and this then means that they can understand and learn more difficult information.

Episodic and Semantic Memory

Episodic memory is the memory of ‘episodes‘ of our life. This takes no effort to form, it just happens automatically. Episodic memory is highly contextual, memory comes mixed together with sensual and emotional experiences. We all have very distinct memories, we can remember emotions, sounds, sights and smells that still feel like they were just yesterday, though twenty years may have passed.

Semantic memory involves focused effort to create these memories. This is the kind of memory we use when we consciously study something to remember it. This doesn’t just happen but, does result in long-lasting memory. Semantic memory is context-free and are not linked to emotional or sensory experiences in which they are first required. This means that once a concept has been stored to the semantic memory, it is more flexible and transferable between different contexts. Semantic memory is what we use when we are problem solving or being creative because both involve applying something learnt in one context to another context.

Forming semantic memories requires work and practice, to remember something you need to think about it, not just experience it. The more you have thought about something, the more you are likely to remember it.

Storage strength and a retrieval strength.

Storage strength is a measure of how well we have learned something. According to Bjork’s theory, storage strength can increase but never decreases. This doesn’t mean that everything we see, hear, or say is stored forever. The brain holds on to only what’s relevant, useful or interesting - or may be so in the future. It does mean that everything we have deliberately committed to memory is there for good (e.g. multiplication tables). Volume of storage is not an issue. So, the idea is, no memory is ever ‘lost’ in the sense it’s faded away. Its retrieval strength is low, or near zero.

Retrieval strength is a measure of how easily information comes to mind. It too increases with studying, and with use. Without reinforcement, retrieval strength drops off quickly, and its capacity is relatively small (compared to storage). The harder we have to work to retrieve memory, the greater the subsequent spike in retrieval and storage. This is known as desirable difficulty.

Metacognition

Metacognition exists in two domains, knowledge and regulation. In the knowledge domain, the learner gains an understanding of how they learn. In the regulation domain, the learner acts to implement this understanding: in other words, what will they do about it?