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Teaching the History of Women
Teaching the History of Women
in the 18th and 19th Centuries
in the 18th and 19th Centuries
In the founding era, American society prescribed narrower legal, social, and cultural lives for women in the public sphere, and increasingly prescribed identities for women almost entirely around their domestic roles as wife, mother, and daughter. Modern historians have characterized this role for women as “Republican Motherhood,” in that their primary role was to raise children who would grow to be good citizens in American democracy.
Because of this, it is often more difficult to find evidence of women’s lives in public historical documents. Indeed, historian Laurel Thatcher Ulrich has pointedly written that “well-behaved women seldom make history,” by which she observed that women who stayed safely within the roles prescribed for them seldom show up in the public record. Instead, we must turn to epistolary evidence, the personal letters written by and to women in the revolutionary era, in order to understand the contours of their lives and their place in American history. Fortunately, the surviving Livingston and Kean family archives are rich in letters written by and to women in both families. Not surprisingly, these sources reveal that despite the strictures placed around them, women played vital roles not only in the birth of the American nation but in shaping American society. The documents gathered here provide evidence of the rich and varied roles that women played, from supporting the Revolutionary war effort on the home front and abroad, to managing family businesses at a sophisticated level.
It is frustratingly more difficult to find sources that allow us to reconstruct the lives of women of lower economic status. Letters of the literate and elite must be gleaned for kernels of evidence about the lives of those who were less visible. And sometimes, historians can uncover the experiences of these women when they ceased to remain in the category of “well-behaved,” and managed to leave a legal record by finding the means for example to sue for divorce, or by transgressing legal codes.
Archival sources relating to Liberty Hall and the family of William Livingston are remarkably rich in revealing sources for uncovering and reconstructing the experiences of elite women in the revolutionary era. As a young man, William Livingston described his ideal wife in his poem, Philosophic Solitude. Also surviving is the correspondence between William Livingston and his wife, Susanna French Livingston, both during their courtship and during their time apart during the American Revolution. Of William and Susanna's children, six were daughters and much of their correspondence with each other and their parents also survives. Their letters reveal their experiences during the American Revolution, not only in New Jersey and in Philadelphia, but also in Europe – Sarah Livingston, who married John Jay at Liberty Hall in 1774, accompanied her husband to Spain and France during the revolution. Together, they carried out efforts to win financial and military support from the French and to negotiate peace with the British. Equally important are the letters of Susan Livingston Kean Niemcewicz. Susan Livingston Kean Niemcewicz was the niece of William Livingston. Following the death of her husband John Kean in 1795 – and the return of her second husband Count Julian Niemcewicz to his native country of Poland in Europe – Susan Livingston Kean Niemcewicz purchased Liberty Hall. Her letters offer invaluable insights into ways the actions of a woman exercising power as the head of an estate.
While we can study these documents to understand the experiences of the Livingston women, it is far more difficult to recover the experiences of the women of lower economic status, women who were less well-educated, and especially those women who were enslaved. And yet, with a careful reading of the sources that we do have, it is possible to gain some insight into their experiences as well. Frustratingly, most surviving sources come from the perspectives of the societal elites. Therefore, they must be read carefully, and their biases recognized, in order to understand the experiences of others. The papers of William Livingston during the American Revolution are filled with numerous appeals by women to Livingston as Governor, many asking for passes to allow them to cross into British territory in New York, for example, to visit ailing family members or conduct family business. Livingston’s suspicion that not all of these requests were legitimate shows both the possible reliance of both sides' militaries on the undercover actions of women, as well as the complex roles that ordinary women played in their family economies during the war.
Exploring the lives of women in this era also requires wrestling with one of the most difficult and horrific aspects of the institution of slavery, the bodily and sexual vulnerability of enslaved women to those men and women who claimed ownership over them. Studying both the history of women in this era and the history of enslavement necessarily entails grappling with the intersections of race and sex and status of servitude. The letters in this collection provide examples of the monitoring of the bodies of enslaved women by those who claimed ownership over them to account for their potential or demonstrated fertility, to the awkward and even violent place of the enslaved in the families of those who claim ownership over them, and the fraught relationships between the enslaved and those whom they (not of their own volition) nursed and cared for.
Standards for K-12 Educators
─────────────────────────────── Standards for K-12 Educators
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Social Studies* (9-12)
*2020 Updated EditionNew Jersey Student Learning Standards for Social Studies* (9-12)
6.1.12.CivicsPI.1.a: Explain how British North American colonies adapted the British governance structure to fit their ideas of individual rights, economic growth, and participatory government.
6.1.12.CivicsPD.1.a: Use multiple sources to analyze the factors that led to an increase in the political rights and participation in government.
6.1.12.CivicsPI.2.a: Prepare and articulate a point of view about the importance of individual rights, separation of powers, and governmental structure in New Jersey’s 1776 constitution and the United States Constitution.
6.1.12.EconEM.2.a: Explain how the United States economy emerged from British mercantilism.
6.1.12.EconEM.2.b: Assess the effectiveness of the new state and national governments attempts to respond to economic challenges including domestic (e.g., inflation, debt) and foreign trade policy issues.
6.1.12.EconEM.2.c: Analyze how technological developments transformed the economy, created international markets, and affected the environment in New Jersey and the nation.
6.1.12.HistoryCC.2.b: Assess the importance of the intellectual origins of the Foundational Documents and assess their importance on the spread of democracy around the world (i.e., Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and Bill of Rights).
6.1.12.HistoryUP.2.a: Using primary sources, describe the perspectives of African Americans, Native Americans, and women during the American Revolution and assess the contributions of each group on the outcome of the war.
6.1.12.HistorySE.2.a: Construct responses to arguments in support of new rights and roles for women and for arguments explaining the reasons against them.
6.1.12.CivicsPI.3.a: Analyze primary and secondary sources to determine the extent to which local and state issues, publications, and the rise of interest group and party politics impacted the development of democratic institutions and practices.
6.1.12.CivicsDP.4.b: Analyze how ideas found in key documents contributed to demanding equality for all (i.e., the Declaration of Independence, the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions, the Emancipation Proclamation, and the Gettysburg Address).
See Complete NJSLS for Social Studies here
AP® U.S. History Key Concepts from the Concept Outline (9-12)
AP® U.S. History Key Concepts from the Concept Outline (9-12)
KC-3.2.I.D: In response to women’s participation in the American Revolution, Enlightenment ideas, and women’s appeals for expanded roles, an ideal of “republican motherhood” gained popularity. It called on women to teach republican values within the family and granted women a new importance in American political culture.
See Complete AP® U.S. History Concept Outline here
See Complete AP® U.S. History Course and Exam Description here
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for English Language Arts Companion Standards for History (9-10)
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for English Language Arts Companion Standards for History (9-10)
RH.9-10.1. Accurately cite strong and thorough textual evidence, to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information.
RH.9-10.2. Determine the theme, central ideas, key information and/or perspective(s) presented in a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary that makes clear the relationships among the key details and ideas.
RH.9-10.4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or economic aspects of history and the social sciences; analyze the cumulative impact of specific word choices on meaning and tone.
RH.9-10.6. Compare the point of view of two or more authors in regards to how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include and emphasize in their respective accounts.
RH.9-10.9. Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic, or of various perspectives, in several primary and secondary sources; analyze how they relate in terms of themes and significant historical concepts.
WHST.9-10.1. Write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts, using valid reasoning and relevant sufficient textual and non-textual evidence.
A. Introduce precise claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that establishes clear relationships among the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
B. Develop claim(s) and counterclaims using sound reasoning, supplying data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline-appropriate form and in a manner that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level and concerns.
C. Use transitions (e.g. words, phrases, clauses) to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims.
D. Establish and maintain a style and tone appropriate to the audience and purpose (e.g. formal and objective for academic writing) while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.
E. Provide a concluding paragraph or section that supports the argument presented.
WHST.9-10.7. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.
WHST.9-10.8. Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the usefulness of each source in answering the research question; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation.
See Complete NJSLS for ELA Companion Standards (9-10) here
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for English Language Arts Companion Standards for History (11-12)
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for English Language Arts Companion Standards for History (11-12)
RH.11-12.1. Accurately cite strong and thorough textual evidence, (e.g., via discussion, written response, etc.), to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to develop an understanding of the text as a whole.
RH.11-12.2. Determine the theme, central ideas, information and/or perspective(s) presented in a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events, ideas and/or author’s perspective(s) develop over the course of the text.
RH.11-12.4. Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including analyzing how an author uses and refines the meaning of a key term over the course of a text (e.g., how Madison defines faction in Federalist No. 10).
RH.11-12.6. Evaluate authors’ differing perspectives on the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning, and evidence.
RH.11-12.9. Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources.
WHST.11-12.1. Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.
A. Introduce precise, knowledgeable claim(s), establish the significance of the claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that logically sequences the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
B. Develop claim(s) and counterclaims using sound reasoning and thoroughly, supplying the most relevant data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline appropriate form that anticipates the audience’s knowledge level, concerns, values, and possible biases.
C. Use transitions (e.g. words, phrases, clauses) to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims.
D. Establish and maintain a style and tone appropriate to the audience and purpose (e.g. formal and objective for academic writing) while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.
E. Provide a concluding paragraph or section that supports the argument presented.
WHST.11-12.7. Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.
WHST.11-12.8. Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the strengths and limitations of each source in terms of the specific task, purpose, and audience; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and over-reliance on any one source and following a standard format for citation.
See Complete NJSLS for ELA Companion Standards (11-12) here
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Social Studies* (6-8)
*2020 Updated EditionNew Jersey Student Learning Standards for Social Studies* (6-8)
6.1.8.HistoryCC.3.a: Explain how the consequences of the Seven Years War, changes in British policies toward American colonies, and responses by various groups and individuals in the North American colonies led to the American Revolution.
6.1.8.HistoryUP.3.a: Use primary sources as evidence to explain why the Declaration of Independence was written and how its key principles evolved to become unifying ideas of American democracy.
6.1.8.CivicsDP.3.a: Use primary and secondary sources to assess whether or not the ideals found in the Declaration of Independence were fulfilled for women, African Americans, and Native Americans during this time period.
6.1.8.GeoSV.3.a: Use maps and other geographic tools to construct an argument on the impact of geography on the developments and outcomes of the American Revolution including New Jersey's pivotal role.
6.1.8.HistorySE.3.b: Analyze a variety of sources to make evidence-based inferences about how prominent individuals and other nations contributed to the causes, execution, and outcomes of the American Revolution.
6.1.8.HistoryUP.3.b: Examine the roles and perspectives of various socioeconomic groups (e.g., rural farmers, urban craftsmen, northern merchants, and southern planters), African Americans, Native Americans, and women during the American Revolution, and determine how these groups were impacted by the war.
6.1.8.HistorySE.3.a: Analyze how the leadership of George Washington during the American Revolution and as president allowed for the establishment of American democracy.
6.1.8.HistoryUP.3.c: Analyze how the terms of the Treaty of Paris affected United States relations with Native Americans and with European powers that had territories in North America from multiple perspectives.
6.1.8.EconET.3.a: Identify the effect of inflation and debt on the American people and evaluate the policies of state and national governments during this time.
See Complete NJSLS for Social Studies here
New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Social Studies* (3-5)
*2020 Updated EditionNew Jersey Student Learning Standards for Social Studies* (3-5)
6.1.5.HistoryCC.1: Analyze key historical events from the past to explain how they led to the creation of the state of New Jersey and the United States.
6.1.5.HistoryCC.3: Use multiple sources to describe how George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and Governor William Livingston have impacted state and national governments over time.
6.1.5.HistoryCC.5: Analyze the power struggle among European countries and determine its impact on people living in Europe and the Americas.
6.1.5.HistoryCC.9: Evaluate the impact of ideas, inventions, and other contributions of prominent figures who lived New Jersey.
6.1.5.HistoryCC.12: Determine the roles of religious freedom and participatory government in various North American colonies.
6.1.5.HistoryCC.13: Craft a claim explaining how the development of early government structures impacted the evolution of American politics and institutions.
6.1.5.HistoryCC.15: Analyze key historical documents to determine the role they played in past and present-day government and citizenship (i.e., the Mayflower Compact, the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, the Bill of Rights).
6.1.5.HistoryUP.5: Compare and contrast historians' interpretations of important historical ideas, resources and events.
6.1.5.HistoryUP.6: Evaluate the impact of different interpretations of experiences and events by people with different cultural or individual perspectives.
6.1.5.HistoryUP.7: Describe why it is important to understand the perspectives of other cultures in an interconnected world.
6.1.5.HistoryCA.1: Craft an argument, supported with historical evidence, for how factors such as demographics (e.g., race, gender, religion, and economic status) affected social, economic, and political opportunities during the Colonial era.
See Complete NJSLS for Social Studies here
College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards* (9-12)
*developed by the National Council for the Social StudiesCollege, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards* (9-12)
D2.His.1.9-12. Evaluate how historical events and developments were shaped by unique circumstances of time and place as well as broader historical contexts.
D2.His.2.9-12. Analyze change and continuity in historical eras.
D2.His.3.9-12. Use questions generated about individuals and groups to assess how the significance of their actions changes over time and is shaped by the historical context.
D2.His.4.9-12. Analyze complex and interacting factors that influenced the perspectives of people during different historical eras.
D2.His.5.9-12. Analyze how historical contexts shaped and continue to shape people’s perspectives.
D2.His.6.9-12. Analyze the ways in which the perspectives of those writing history shaped the history that they produced.
D2.His.7.9-12. Explain how the perspectives of people in the present shape interpretations of the past.
D2.His.8.9-12. Analyze how current interpretations of the past are limited by the extent to which available historical sources represent perspectives of people at the time.
D2.His.9.9-12. Analyze the relationship between historical sources and the secondary interpretations made from them.
D2.His.10.9-12. Detect possible limitations in various kinds of historical evidence and differing secondary interpretations.
D2.His.11.9-12. Critique the usefulness of historical sources for a specific historical inquiry based on their maker, date, place of origin, intended audience, and purpose.
D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further inquiry and investigate additional sources.
D2.His.13.9-12. Critique the appropriateness of the historical sources used in a secondary interpretation.
D2.His.16.9-12. Integrate evidence from multiple relevant historical sources and interpretations into a reasoned argument about the past.
D2.His.17.9-12. Critique the central arguments in secondary works of history on related topics in multiple media in terms of their historical accuracy.
D2.Civ.2.9-12. Analyze the role of citizens in the U.S. political system, with attention to various theories of democracy, changes in Americans’ participation over time, and alternative models from other countries, past and present.
D2.Civ.5.9-12. Evaluate citizens’ and institutions’ effectiveness in addressing social and political problems at the local, state, tribal, national, and/or international level.
D2.Civ.8.9-12. Evaluate social and political systems in different contexts, times, and places, that promote civic virtues and enact democratic principles.
D2.Civ.10.9-12. Analyze the impact and the appropriate roles of personal interests and perspectives on the application of civic virtues, democratic principles, constitutional rights, and human rights.
D2.Civ.12.9-12. Analyze how people use and challenge local, state, national, and international laws to address a variety of public issues.
D2.Civ.13.9-12. Evaluate public policies in terms of intended and unintended outcomes, and related consequences.
D2.Civ.14.9-12. Analyze historical, contemporary, and emerging means of changing societies, promoting the common good, and protecting rights.
D2.Geo.5.9-12. Evaluate how political and economic decisions throughout time have influenced cultural and environmental characteristics of various places and regions.
D3.1.9-12. Gather relevant information from multiple sources representing a wide range of views while using the origin, authority, structure, context, and corroborative value of the sources to guide the selection.
D3.2.9-12. Evaluate the credibility of a source by examining how experts value the source.
D4.1.9-12. Construct arguments using precise and knowledgeable claims, with evidence from multiple sources, while acknowledging counterclaims and evidentiary weaknesses.
D4.2.9-12. Construct explanations using sound reasoning, correct sequence (linear or non-linear), examples, and details with significant and pertinent information and data, while acknowledging the strengths and weaknesses of the explanation given its purpose (e.g., cause and effect, chronological, procedural, technical).
D4.4.9-12. Critique the use of claims and evidence in arguments for credibility.
D4.5.9-12. Critique the use of the reasoning, sequencing, and supporting details of explanations.
D4.6.9-12. Use disciplinary and interdisciplinary lenses to understand the characteristics and causes of local, regional, and global problems; instances of such problems in multiple contexts; and challenges and opportunities faced by those trying to address these problems over time and place.
See Complete C3 Framework for Social Studies here
Common Core State Standards, English Language Arts, Literacy in History/Social Studies (9-10)
Common Core State Standards, English Language Arts, Literacy in History/Social Studies (9-10)
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.1 Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, attending to such features as the date and origin of the information.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.2 Determine the central ideas or information of a primary or secondary source; provide an accurate summary of how key events or ideas develop over the course of the text.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.4 Determine the meaning of words and phrases as they are used in a text, including vocabulary describing political, social, or economic aspects of history/social science.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.6 Compare the point of view of two or more authors for how they treat the same or similar topics, including which details they include and emphasize in their respective accounts.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.RH.9-10.9 Compare and contrast treatments of the same topic in several primary and secondary sources.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1.A Introduce precise claim(s), distinguish the claim(s) from alternate or opposing claims, and create an organization that establishes clear relationships among the claim(s), counterclaims, reasons, and evidence.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1.B Develop claim(s) and counterclaims fairly, supplying data and evidence for each while pointing out the strengths and limitations of both claim(s) and counterclaims in a discipline-appropriate form and in a manner that anticipates the audience's knowledge level and concerns.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1.C Use words, phrases, and clauses to link the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships between claim(s) and reasons, between reasons and evidence, and between claim(s) and counterclaims.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1.D Establish and maintain a formal style and objective tone while attending to the norms and conventions of the discipline in which they are writing.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.1.E Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from or supports the argument presented.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.7 Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects to answer a question (including a self-generated question) or solve a problem; narrow or broaden the inquiry when appropriate; synthesize multiple sources on the subject, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation.
CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.WHST.9-10.8 Gather relevant information from multiple authoritative print and digital sources, using advanced searches effectively; assess the usefulness of each source in answering the research question; integrate information into the text selectively to maintain the flow of ideas, avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation.
See Complete CCSS Literacy in History/Social Studies (Reading) here
See Complete CCSS Literacy in History/Social Studies (Writing) here
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