A Demand for Beef

Following the Civil War, from 1865 to 1900, more food was needed for the growing populations in the eastern states. The demand for beef was huge. Beef comes from cattle (cows). Before the Civil War, cattle sold for as little as four dollars a head. After the war, the price rose to as much as forty dollars a head because beef was scarce in the East.

Cowboys and Cattle Trails

At the Turn of the Century (1800s to 1900s), there were a lot of cattle roaming around in southern Texas. But, how could the cattle be gathered up and moved from southern Texas to the East to meet the demand for beef? The solution was for cowboys to herd (move) cattle north through Texas along cattle trails. The trails ended at railroads. There, cattle were loaded into railroad cars and shipped east. These cattle drives were an important part of life in the United States at the Turn of the Century.

Chisholm Trail and Great Western Cattle Trail

Several trails in Texas were used to move cattle. The most famous was the Chisholm Trail. Historians estimate that more than five million cattle traveled up the Chisholm Trail from 1867 to the mid‑1880s. Another important trail was the Great Western Cattle Trail. It was farther west than the Chisholm Trail and took cattle and cowboys even farther north.

Life and Work on the Trails

          Historians believe that around 35,000 cowboys herded cows along western trails at the Turn of the Century. About 9,000 of these cowboys were formerly enslaved men and some women. The working environment for cowboys was hard. Cowboys herded cattle across rough land and lived out in the open during all seasons. They even fought against American Indians who were trying to protect their lands.

Discrimination Off the Trails

          Black cowboys experienced discrimination in the towns they passed through along the trails. For example, they could not eat at the restaurants or stay in the same hotels as White cowboys. However, while out on the trails, they did not face as much discrimination. Fellow cowboys respected one another and valued the work everyone did.

Friendship and Respect Among Black Cowboys

There was friendship and respect among the Black cowboys out on the trails. Nat Love, a famous Black cowboy, said that “[Cowboys] were always ready to share their blanket and their last ration with a less fortunate fellow companion and always assisted each other in the many trying situations that were continually coming up in a cowboy's life.”

Introduction 

A producer is someone who provides a good or service. A consumer is someone who buys goods or services. A price incentive is a change in price that causes a change in producer and consumer behavior. 

Incentives for Consumers

Incentives cause consumers to change their behavior. The cheaper an item is, the more likely consumers are to buy it. For example, your family might wait until a new game goes on sale before buying it for you. The lower price is the incentive that makes people want to buy it.

Incentives for Producers

Price incentives also affect producers. When consumers really want something, they may be willing to pay a higher price for it. Producers will make and sell a good or service if they know people will pay more. For example, if skateboards suddenly became very popular, many consumers would want to buy them even at higher prices. That higher price gives producers an incentive to make and sell more skateboards.

How Does Price Incentive Impact Cattle Trails?

At the turn of the century, beef was scarce in the East. People in the eastern United States were willing to pay a lot of money for it. This high price was an incentive for cattle ranchers to move their cattle north through Texas to the railroads in Kansas. There, cattle were loaded into railroad cars and sent east to be sold. This journey required a lot of work, but it was worth it because the beef sold for such a high price. The high price was the incentive.

At the turn of the century, people moved to big cities looking for jobs and new adventures. Cities grew quickly to meet the needs of their newest residents. Two popular cities in particular were Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and Chicago, Illinois. The three factors (causes) for growth of these cities were resources, transportation, and population. 

Why leave home?

At the turn of the 20th century, many people left their home countries and immigrated to the United States. An immigrant is a person who moves to live permanently in another country. New immigrants came from Eastern Europe and Asia. Many of these countries had unfair laws and offered few opportunities for economic success. Immigrants came to the United States for jobs, a democratic government, more food, and a new start for their families.

What was the trip like?

The trip was difficult. Immigrants often sold most of their belongings to pay for the trip. People were crowded together in dark and dirty parts of the ships with very little food. The journey usually lasted about 12 days. Some families traveled together, while others sent children alone.

What happened at Ellis Island and Angel Island?

Immigrants from Europe arrived at Ellis Island in New York City. They were processed within a few hours. Doctors inspected them for illnesses such as eye and lung diseases. More than 12 million European immigrants passed through Ellis Island.

          Immigrants from Asia had a very different experience at Angel Island near San Francisco, California. The United States had strict laws that limited immigration from Asia. Many Asian immigrants were held for weeks or even months before officials decided whether they could enter the country or had to return home. Only about 300,000 Asian immigrants were allowed into the United States.

Where did immigrants settle?

Most Asian immigrants settled in California, although some moved as they worked on railroad construction across the country. Many European immigrants settled in large cities in the East where jobs were available. Pittsburgh’s steel industry and Chicago’s meatpacking factories attracted many European workers. Some immigrants also moved away from cities to start farms in the central and western states.

Certain inventions played an important role in the United States at the turn of the century. These inventions helped to develop the United States and made people’s lives easier.  

Alexander Graham Bell - (communication)

       In the summer of 1875, Alexander Graham Bell invented a device that allowed human voices to be carried over wires. It was the telephone. This invention improved communication by allowing families to easily and quickly call each other. Businesses could reach more customers. Leaders around the world could call and talk out problems and issues. Today, smartphones use signals to make calls instead of wires. 

Thomas Edison - (electricity)

       Thomas Edison is famous for inventing a useful light bulb that people could use in their businesses and homes. This new light bulb made it possible for homes to be lit up at night without candles. Businesses were able to produce more goods by using light bulbs in factories and extending working hours into the night. Edison also created an electric company to supply electricity to homes and businesses in cities.

The Wright Brothers  - (flight)

       In 1903, brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright successfully flew their motorized airplane in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Orville’s 12-second flight was short, but it changed American life forever. Interest in aviation, or flight, took off that day. Eventually, airplanes would be built to fight wars, fly people for travel, and ship goods quickly around the world. 

George Washington Carver - (science)

       George Washington Carver was an African American scientist who taught farmers the benefits of crop rotation for agriculture. Crop rotation is planting different crops each year to keep soil healthy. Carver invented more than 400 uses for peanuts and sweet potatoes to convince cotton farmers to rotate crops. These peanut-based products included flour, soaps, and inks.

Cuban Independence

Cuba is an island near Florida that was ruled by Spain. By 1895, the Cuban people wanted independence from Spain. The United States and Cuba had a close relationship. United States sugar companies wanted the United States to support Cuba to protect the $50 million in Cuban sugar.

Yellow Journalism

At the turn of the century, many newspaper writers used yellow journalism. This means they exaggerated the truth or even made up stories about Cuba’s fight for independence. Their main goal was to sell more newspapers. These exaggerated stories made the situation in Cuba seem much worse, causing more Americans to support helping Cuba.

A Mysterious Explosion

William McKinley became president in 1897. At first he wanted to stay out of Cuba’s problems. He sent a warship, the USS Maine, to Cuba to protect U.S. citizens living there. An explosion sank the ship killing 250 American soldiers. No one knew what caused the blast, and there was no proof that Spain was responsible. However, newspapers used yellow journalism to blame Spain and encouraged the slogan “Remember the Maine!” to push the United States toward war.

America Goes to War

Congress voted to go to war against Spain. Fighting took place in and around Cuba and near the Spanish Philippines in the Pacific. The war was quick. Spain surrendered after just ten weeks. More than 3,000 Americans and about 55,000 Spaniards died in the war.

America’s Role in the World Expands

After the Spanish-American War, Cuba gained their independence from Spain. The United States took control of Spain’s territories in the Philippines and Guam in the South Pacific and Puerto Rico in the Atlantic. America’s quick victory showed the world that the United States wanted to expand its role and power in the world.

The Need for a Canal

Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901. Roosevelt wanted to expand America’s power around the world. The United States needed a faster route for ships to travel between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. At the time, ships had to sail around the tip of South America, which was dangerous and added many days to each trip. The solution: a canal connecting the two oceans. 

Building the Panama Canal

In 1904, the United States signed a treaty with the nation of Panama to build the Panama Canal. Building the canal was a huge job. More than 40,000 people worked on it. It took 10 years to dig the canal through 50 miles of jungle.

Impacts of the Panama Canal

The Panama Canal had several important impacts on the United States. First, it made traveling between the two oceans safer than sailing through the dangerous waters below South America. Second, it increased trade by reducing the number of days needed to ship goods. Third, it shortened the time it took the United States to reach its new Pacific territories gained after the Spanish-American War.

The Panama Canal Today

The United States controlled the Panama Canal until 1999. Today, the country of Panama runs it. The canal still plays an important role in world trade. However, there are challenges with the more than 100‑year‑old canal. It must be expanded often to fit today’s larger ships, and the heavy traffic sometimes causes delays that last several days.