Taijah Chavis

Straightening Out The History of Black Hair

The Effect of Eurocentric Hair Paradigms on Familial Relationships in the Black Household 

By: Taijah Chavis

  Racial inequality is a long-standing issue that in recent years has undergone wide discussion yet remains abysmally understood. Racism as a term has mutated from a genuine descriptor of people’s painstaking reality to a blanket statement, a political buzzword that has lost the meaning from which it derived itself from. Nonetheless, racism and its reverberating echoes are still heard in today's climate in ways not formerly anticipated, presumably the least understood and most overlooked being Black hair. The history of Black hair in the Americas is both extensive and convoluted and though there have been a multitude of studies done to explore the evolution of Black hair throughout history, they have largely lacked historical basis and moreover connection to grander racial themes. This is generally holistic as there exists many significant schisms in academia regarding the role of the Black household and its interactions with external factors beyond the manifestations of racism that are readily correlated. I’d like to shift focus, however, onto the history of Black hair in the United States and the ways in which Eurocentric hair standards have morphed the structure and dynamic of the nuclear Black family and its household. These standards have long been a tool of oppression, used to marginalize and discriminate against Black individuals and perpetuate racist beliefs and stereotypes. This has had far-reaching consequences for the Black community, affecting everything from self-esteem to employment opportunities to the very structure of Black households.

With the relatively persistent number of rape, sexual assault, and interracial couple cases amongst plantation owners and their slaves it wasn’t too infrequent to find mixed-race slaves. In her analysis of a U.S Census, Brenda Stevenson records that in 1850, 11% of the enslaved population and 37% of the free population were identified as “mulatto”, providing substantial evidence of interracial sexual contacts. (7) As a result, a portion of the later generations of slaves displayed mixed-race features. Though not definitively, lighter skin, variation in noses and lips, and looser hair textures began to be equated with more privilege, beauty, and proximity to whiteness. It was at this time that the concepts of colorism and texturism began to take root, making it desirable to reproduce and mimic these traits. These beliefs were only exacerbated with the emancipation of slavery, as African-Americans gained a newfound “freedom” with which they had to maneuver very cautiously. Blackness as a whole was viewed as threatening and dangerous, and African-Americans understood that in order to appear safe and non-threatening, assimilation was necessary. The credence of this was widespread and the idealized image of the “New Civilized Negro” was sprung. This led to a hierarchy of Blackness based on proximity to whiteness, with those possessing more Eurocentric features at the top such as biracial or lighter skin people, those with assimilated Black features in the middle, and those with strong unaltered Black features at the bottom. People higher in the hierarchy were better socially accepted and found more success in the economic sector than their darker counterparts. These social hierarchies continued to influence the experiences of Black Americans for generations, even serving as a direct precursor to the Hair Care Boom of the 1900s; a time of heightened interest and innovation in hair care products designed for Black hair. Many Black Americans invested in these products with the hope that they would also gain the privileges others had, as many products promised to do such as the references to the right and above. One of the most notable products from this era was the hot comb, a metal tool that could straighten hair using heat from a flame, created by Madam CJ Walker. Other inventions that gained popularity during this time include chemical hair relaxers, pioneered by Garrett Morgan, and the hair weave, created by Christina Jenkins.

Despite this, in recent years, the rise of the natural hair movement and the success of black entrepreneurs in the hair care industry have sparked discussions about the positive impact of the reclaiming of Black beauty standards that challenge Eurocentric norms. Though this discourse recognizes the admirable persistence of Black people in light of centuries of institutional and interpersonal discrimination, it creates an illusion of false progress as even the natural hair movement has been idealistic at best with Black or biracial women with looser hair textures at the forefront and those with tighter hair textures often remaining absent of representation. 

The incongruity surrounding hair appreciation becomes strikingly more apparent when viewed under the framework of Black families. Dynamics of power and control within Black families reflect the ongoing struggle to reconcile traditional cultural practices within the confines of a society that is hostile to Blackness. Childhood memories for many Black women often consist of hours sitting in a kitchen chair or on the living room floor while the strong smells of hair grease and coconut oil fill the air, accompanied by the sizzling sound of a hot comb or the chemical smell of a relaxer. These intimate hair rituals are often shared between a Black mother and her daughter, or a Black father and his son. However, the issues that arise from these rituals go deeper than hair; they stem from the psychological harm that Eurocentric beauty standards have inflicted on Black people and women disproportionately. 

The impact of these standards extends beyond hair rituals. The mother-child relationship, in particular, is often fraught with tension as Black mothers are expected to be both nurturing and authoritative figures, while also preparing their children for a discriminatory society. This is a never-ending struggle, especially considering the economic struggles that many Black families are predisposed to, which can limit a parent's ability to provide effective parenting. All of these factors have acted as compartments of stress funneled into parenthood that has played historically out in complex and nuanced ways.

Hair as a Marker of Beauty

  The role of gender for Black women was largely altered by the implementation of slavery. During slavery, Black women were seen as laborers and breeders, not women. Traditional femininity was not afforded to them, and gender roles were essentially obsolete since gender distinction was not profitable for slave masters. Female slaves did not receive lighter labor, punishments, or gentler treatment as these were rights reserved for the “pure white women.” Sexuality on the other hand was not off limits, therefore when their female orientation was recognized it was in an perverted, obtuse manner that meant being transfigured into sexual creatures existing simply for the pleasure of their slave owners.  Slave owners' wives would often punish their female slaves for these acts by shaving their heads, in an attempt to defeminize and degrade them.  Throughout history, Black women have been limited to existing within a dichotomy of hypersexualization or masculinization and for this reason it’s commonplace to see Black mothers displacing these feelings unto their daughters post-slavery. Black women have spent most of post-slavery history trying to compensate for their perceived lack of femininity by adopting Eurocentric hairstyles and imposing those same standards on their children, leading to feelings of insecurity and self-esteem issues in children. During the mid-twentieth century these issues were most prominent, Black individuals in American society found themselves in a particularly vulnerable position, where the imperative for assimilation was not a matter of convenience, but rather a necessity. The 1947 Kenneth & Mamie Clark Doll Experiment analyzed the effect of racism on children's perceptions of race by asking 253 children questions about four identical dolls, two Black and two White, such as "Which doll do you like to play with?" and "Which doll looks bad?" An overwhelming majority of children attributed positive traits to the White doll and negative to the Black. It is clear that many of the Black children experienced their own Blackness as a curse. (8) Although this study doesn’t ask specifically about hair, it is an easily observable trend that the White dolls were considered prettier by the children. Though it would be an incorrect causal assumption to attribute this entirely to parenting, it is not incorrect to claim that parenting is a significant contributing factor. With the introduction of the Black Power Movements of the 1970’s however, perception around Black hair experienced a shift. (9) A newfound understanding of Blackness as “empowering” and “beautiful” began to circulate in ways never seen before. This also had a pull on the black family as there was generational stratification between the newer age of Baby Boomers and the generation that experienced Jim Crow, the Silent Generation. Many mothers and grandmothers disapproved of this radical change and continued to wear their hair straight while their children and grandchildren embraced what they’ve always been taught was not beautiful, creating tension and disagreements within the family. On the other hand, the 70s movements also paved way for a much more inclusive family dynamic as sentiments about natural hair became more accepting. Now that segregation no longer outrightly exists and the Black Power Movements have experienced decline, when this was repeated in contemporary times such as in the video to the right the results displayed the same trend though much less severe. A pop culture example of this being the pilot episode of Insecure, when a girl asks why Issa Rae’s hair is cut short as she can’t fathom that she could have liked her hair being short. Today, while the effects of Eurocentric beauty standards are still present, the impact is partly mitigated due to the progress made in the fight for Black empowerment. Many families continue to grapple with these issues in current times navigating generational hurdles, self-esteem issues, and struggles to reconcile cultural pride while also existing in a society that rejects Blackness.

Economic Anxiety 

 Anxiety in the economic sector is a major source of contention for many individuals as 65% of Americans have reported that money is a significant source of stress for them, however, this is especially true for those who are subject to discriminatory legislation or exclusion from educational, fiscal, and employment opportunities. (9) Unfortunately, this anxiety can have a domino effect that extends beyond the individual, impacting familial relationships and creating a paradoxical cycle of poverty that disproportionately affects Black families. This is due in part to the “socially layered accumulation of disadvantages” that have been passed down through generations, leaving many parents with feelings of angst about the economic insecurity that their children may face as a result of these abhorrent inequalities. (10)

 Discriminatory institutional policies towards Black women's hair have been present in both implicit and explicit forms for over two centuries. During the era of slavery, Black women were often required to cover their hair with scarves or head wraps to reinforce their subservient status. This practice contributed to the creation of the Mammy stereotype, portraying Black women as unattractive and unprofessional. In some states such as Louisiana, laws even existed requiring Black women to wear tignons (scarves) regardless of their enslaved status. (11) This practice was prevalent until the Hair Care Boom in the early 19th century, when tools like the hot comb became readily available, creating an expectation that Black women straighten their hair in professional settings. Now that Black people were inducted into the economic sector, the expectation of assimilation extended to children and teens as well. Parents felt it necessary that their children present themselves in a manner that is not threatening to the white class as it would hinder them from gaining social and professional accesses. When the Black Power Movement arrived it was the first time we saw widespread pushback against these norms. Despite this however, many Black men and women still felt uncomfortable navigating "professional" environments with their natural hair. This discomfort led to situations where many women have reported feeling as if “wearing a suit was not enough; they had to dress from hair to toe” to fit into white spaces such as educational institutions and workplaces to access economic opportunities. (12) Black parents were placed in an impossible position as they felt the instinct to protect their children from racist institutions in the only way they could. This created tension between parents and children, with many parents policing their children's physical presentation to make them fit more easily into these spaces. This also applies to their social performance as several studies report that African American women experience more pressure to alter their hair from their family, especially for “special occasions or when they have to church.” (13) The movement brought to the forefront many generational differences as well with many grandmothers and mothers experiencing confusion as to why the newer generation would place themselves in harmful positions by giving up relaxers, straighteners, etc. Since the late 1900s and early 2000s, the outright rejection of natural hair has given way to a more subtle form of discrimination, characterized by indirect judgments. However, opinions on natural hair within the Black community have changed and people are now more likely to resist discrimination than conform to it. As a result, laws such as the California CROWN Act, the first state-level legislation protecting against prejudice based on hairstyles or texture, have been passed. (14) These legal protections have made parents feel more comfortable allowing their children to express their identity in ways that they see fit, without fear of economic repercussions. Although there is still tremendous progress to be made there has been an enormous amount that has been made, allowing children to overall feel more safe and accepted by their families, friends, and sometimes peers. 

Conclusion

This paper has revealed that the Black family has been infiltrated by the intricate layers of Eurocentric hair standards that have been established and fortified over many decades. These standards have inhibited the effectiveness of the Black family dynamic in various ways, as discussed throughout this work, including the perception of hair as a marker of beauty or an economic vehicle. Nevertheless, the Black community has demonstrated resilience and perseverance in their fight for a space in which they can thrive leading to changes in this dynamic over time. This highlights the importance of continued efforts toward dismantling Eurocentric beauty standards and creating a more inclusive society that values and celebrates diverse forms of beauty.

Citations

1. Byrd, Ayana, and Lori Tharps. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001.

2. Nabugodi, Mathelinda. "Afro Hair in the Time of Slavery." African Identities 15, no. 3 (2017): 321-34.

3. Latrobe, Benjamin. Latrobe's View of America, 1795-1820: Selections from the Watercolor Sketches and Diary. Edited by Edward C. Carter II. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.

4. Byrd, Ayana, and Lori Tharps. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001.

5. Byrd, Ayana, and Lori Tharps. Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2001.

6. Federal Writers' Project, Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project, 1936-1938 (Washington: Library of Congress, 1941)

7. Stevenson, Brenda E. "What’s Love Got to Do with It? Concubinage and Enslaved Women and Girls in the Antebellum South." Journal of Women's History 26, no. 1 (2014): 10-33.

8. Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie P. Clark, "Skin Color as a Factor in Racial Identification of Negro Preschool Children," Journal of Social Psychology 10, no. 3 (1940)

9. American Psychological Association. "Stress in America Infographics." Accessed May 4, 2023. https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2021/stress-america-infographic.

10. Oliver, Melvin L., and Thomas M. Shapiro. Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2006

11. Everett, Donald E. Free Persons of Color in Colonial America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1983.

12. Banks, Ingrid. "The Impact of Hair on African American Women's Collective Identity Formation." Psychology of Women Quarterly 35, no. 4 (2011): 609-21.

13. King, Vanessa, and Dieynaba Niabaly. "The Politics of Black Women's Hair." Review of Communication 16, no. 1 (2016): 28-42.

14. Gibson, Kelly. "The CROWN Act would ban hair discrimination in 11 states. Mya De'Anna Cook is fighting for the rest of the country to follow." Insider, August 30, 2022,

15. "Ebony Magazine: February 1961." Google Books. Accessed May 4, 2023. https://books.google.com/books?id=Xs4DAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.

16. "Ebony Magazine: November 1960." Google Books. Accessed May 4, 2023. https://books.google.com/books?id=pswDAAAAMBAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false.

17. Latrobe, Benjamin. Latrobe's View of America, 1795-1820: Selections from the Watercolor Sketches and Diary. Edited by Edward C. Carter II. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.

18. Carding Comb, photograph. The British Museum.