shōnen

Ash Hight

What is shōnen?

Cambridge University defines Shōnen as a genre of manga aimed at teenage boys between the ages of 13 and 19. It directly translates to boy or youth in Japanese. Common themes of shōnen include friendship, perseverance, overcoming life obstacles, finding identity, power, responsibility, and rivalry. Most shōnen storylines are action-packed and usually include character development. However, in recent times, many people of all ages and genders have found a connection with shōnen, expanding the target audience beyond younger boys. Moreover, recurring motifs have also evolved since the 1960s, reflecting a pattern of the political and social climates of society and globalization from different periods of time.

From manga to anime

Tezuka Osamu and Mushi Productions

Tezuka Osamu is regarded as the father or god of manga. He created the Astro Boy manga, which later developed into one of Japan's most iconic anime and pop culture references. Japan has had its roots in artistic storytelling for centuries, dating back to Hokusai’s art series called Hokusai Manga, depicting everyday life through art panels. However, Osamu was at the forefront of revolutionizing manga, doing so by adding cinematic paneling, dynamic angles, incredibly detailed close-ups, and dynamic lines, bringing the panels to life, and allowing for an emotional connection between the story and the readers.

Tezuka Osamu in his production studio

Inspirations and Cultural Influence

Osamu was very much inspired by Disney, which can be seen in the character's exaggerated and enlarged eyes, which were able to display an array of emotions and youthfulness. Not only did he lead a revolution in his art, but also in his storytelling formats. Contrary to the short storylines popularized across the world at this time, he planned out longer narratives, allowing the audience to bond with the characters and story more.

In 1961, Osamu founded Mushi Production, which is often considered the first modern animation studio. While Toei production was created in 1948 and had been in the game for years at this point, Toei focused on movies adjacent to Disney’s methods, and Mushi focused on producing TV shows. Two years after founding Mushi Pro, Osamu was able to develop the Astro Boy manga into anime, laying the foundation for all future anime to come.

Original Character Designs for Astro Boy

Developing anime

The mid-1900s were a time of labor-intensive, limited techniques, where every frame had to be meticulously hand-drawn. Storyboarding the anime often took months or up to a year, especially in the case of Osamu. He was writing other manga and promoting his work while producing the Astro Boy anime. He wanted to devote himself fully to his art, taking charge of storyboarding and the rough sketch animations. Osamu wanted to differentiate his work from other anime or cartoons, even calling out American cartoons, stating that they were filled with “poor jokes and filling up airtime with mouth flapping.” During the production of Astro Boy, Mushi Pro made a meticulous choice in cutting the episodes into thirty-minute fragments - the perfect length to develop narratives within each episode.

Revolutionizing techniques

Visual and sonic techniques were fresh and new from previous animations, as Osamu used these elements to enhance and help create the mood and setting of each scene. He uses sound to dramatize each scene, as seen in the opening scene of Astro Boy. The ominous background and soft orchestra in the background captivate the viewers, producing such an eerie ambiance that viewers feel like creating any noise would shatter the atmosphere. These simple and minimalistic approaches were far more effective than other complex sonic and visual techniques at this time.

Excerpt from Astro Boy

Shonen Jump is for everyone

Tezuka Osamu’s influence has carried over to modern-day manga storytelling. Shonen Jump, a weekly manga magazine that has been running since the 1960s, is arguably one of the most influential factors in the manga and anime world today. It has published works such as Dragon Ball, One Piece, and Naruto. It was created in 1968 by the publishing company Shueisha, targeting younger boys. However, after a few issues, Shonen Jump realized their audience was, much broader than they expected, as adults took an interest in the weekly magazine as well. Entertainment Weekly Oricon Style magazine released a survey asking around 3,000 girls in Japan what their favorite manga magazines were, and Shonen Jump placed first. Initially, girls thought that Shonen Jump was meant for boys, but after reading a copy of the magazine, they could resonate with the stories. The girls surveyed said that the stories are very interesting the illustrations are captivatingly beautiful, and there was so much diversity within the genres of stories included.

Panel from Mazinger Z

Themes and examples

Shonen Jump allowed for near-complete uncensorship in the magazine; scenes revolving around eroticism, war, death, or more mature ideations were prominent, as manga artists wanted to be able to express their stories with zero limitations. However, innocent themes were incorporated as well, such as love stories, sports, and comedy. Shonen Jump really did have everything for everyone, they tailored themselves to meet everyone’s needs.

One of the first successful stories to come out of Shonen Jump was Mazinger Z, a story about a piloted robot who fought evil. The story debuted in the magazine in October of 1972, and quickly gained a large fanbase. Mecha manga and anime were incredibly popular due to the advancements in technology during this time. However, this was the first manga that had a piloted mecha, not an autonomous one. Toei Animation saw this opportunity when Mazinger Z was being drafted by Go Nagai, and quickly worked to nearly simultaneously launch the manga and anime, with Mazinger Z being aired on Japanese television in December of 1972.

Most popular anime by decade

1950-1960s: Astro Boy

Astro Boy is the first Japanese anime with an extended plotline, following the story of a robot boy created by Dr. Tenma after he lost his son. Set in a world where robots and humans coexist, Astro Boy depicts a peaceful society between technology and humanity. However, the anime showcases ambiguity regarding the ethics surrounding artificial intelligence and robot-human relationships. Following the destruction the atomic bomb brought upon Japan, shattering both cities and national identity, Astro Boy showcases the ups and downsides of technological hope and advancements.

1970s: Mazinger Z

Mazinger Z follows the main character Koji Kabuto, a 17-year-old high school student who inherited and controls a powerful giant robot after his grandfather was killed by the main antagonist Dr. Hell. The story is centered around Koji's battles against Dr. Hell and his robotic army. Koji controlling the giant robot is a direct reflection of Japan’s desire to dominate technology, in lieu of being dominated by them. Themes concurrent to 1970s society surround generational trauma and inherited responsibility following the aftermath of World War II and the Vietnam War. Both of the wars shed light on anti-establishment protests and movements, displaying the youth’s desire to retaliate against oppressive regimes.

1980s: Fist of the North Star

Fist of the North Star takes place in a post-apocalyptic world, where the main character Kenshiro searches for his fiancée in a world destroyed by nuclear war. The savage wasteland is filled with warlords and dictators, whom he fights while helping the poor and oppressed. At this point in time, it has been around 40 years since the horrors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however, the threat of the Cold War reintroduces the themes of anxiety around nuclear weapons and worldly destruction - this time on an even larger scale as technology has progressed much in the past decades. Japan knows what happened in the aftermath of nuclear destruction, and this anime is a direct reflection of those concerns, both with domestic destruction, scarcity of resources, and the collapse of the economy. There are also Western influences shown in the anime, with hyper-masculinity manifested in Kenshiro, and with the anime being heavily influenced by the American movie Mad Max.

1990s: Yu Yu Hakusho

Yu Yu Hakusho tells the story of a delinquent high school student, Yusuke Urameshi, whose death was an accident as he died saving a child. Because of this, he becomes a sort of spirit detective, helping protect the natural world from supernatural threats. Prominent themes throughout the anime surround inner transformation, a greyscale society in contrast to black-and-white morals, philosophical thought, and friendship. The 1990s were considered the lost decade following the crash and instability of Japan’s economic market. However, this economic crash brought the growing culture of globalizing youth. Questions surrounding traditional values were brought up due to how interconnected the world was becoming with the rise of the internet and technological advancements.

2000s: Naruto

Naruto Uzumaki, an orphaned ninja, embarks on an inner journey to become the Hokage of his village. He carries the power of the Nine-Tailed Fox, bringing him stigmatization, as this entity is a demon. However, he perseveres and still makes many friends, showing the true meaning of friendship, empathy, and trust. Naruto helps navigate the complex feelings during a time of heightened terrorism, xenophobia, and inherited generational trauma, different than any other anime at that time. It shows how people can come together and unify during tumultuous times, showcasing the vulnerable desire for belonging, community, and purpose.

2010s: One Piece

Originally created in the 1990s, One Piece attained a massive global audience by the 2010s. The anime takes place in a pirate-driven world, following the life of Monkey D. Luffy, a pirate who ate the Gum-Gum fruit, giving his body rubber-like abilities. The anime explores themes of teamwork, individual ambition, opposition from authoritarianism, societal standards, morality, and diversity. During a time of internet interconnectedness, increased surveillance, and multiculturalism, One Piece exposes contemporary anxieties and idealisms.

2020s: Jujutsu Kaisen

Jujutsu Kaisen’s plot revolves around Yuji Itadori, who ingested a cursed object that gave him incredible power and strength, but at the cost of sharing his mind and body with a curse, Sukuna. Because of this, he joins a specialty school for sorcerers, training to fight curses and protect common civilians. Jujutsu Kaisen follows themes of teamwork, self-identity, anti-authoritarianism, skewed morals, and generational trauma. The anime occurs in modern-day society, where many hierarchy levels are prominent, especially within the sorcerer and spirit realm. Each character struggles with their dark past, sacrificing their chance at a normal life to protect themselves from outside invasion.

Evolutions in thematic elements

Societal issues and ideations have altered over time, often reflected in the underlying messages hidden within pop culture. For instance, many of the messages in the earlier anime reflected ideations of uncertainty around advancing technology, nuclear war, whether it was surrounding World War II, the Vietnam War, or the Cold War, or differing anxieties. Modern anime has shifted away from the narrative surrounding skepticism in technology and anxiety about nuclear war, to spreading messages challenging authoritarianism, and globalization alongside the expansion of the internet, and inner identity.

Shift in linguistics

This shift can also be seen in the linguistics used in anime. Speech patterns often reflect many things about a person, ranging from their education, social class, and age. Initially, shonen anime speech patterns appeal to a younger, male audience, using the pronoun boku, a more humble and respectful way of saying I, often only used by boys. Many manga and anime initially used this pronoun, especially before war trauma. However, after World War II, followed by the economy declining in the 1990s and Western ideology influencing the East, the ideal Japanese man started to shift from a well-educated salaryman to an aggressive, masculine man. Ore is used by more “tough” men and can be perceived as rude and cocky, and can most commonly be seen by headstrong characters. This pronoun became much more common in manga and anime, one of the most drastic verbal shifts in anime history, albeit was done discreetly and subtly.

Recognition overseas and economic boom

Cool Japan Initiative

The Japanese government launched the Cool Japan Initiative in 2013, in an effort to bring in revenue from tourism and to spread global awareness about Japanese culture. There are three steps in this process. The first step is identifying potential customers, people who don't harbor any negative emotions towards Japan, but don't care for the place or culture much. After identifying them, the initiative strives to shift potential customers into customers, by deepening their knowledge and interest about Japanese culture, shifting the initiative from a one-way to a two-way communication. Lastly, customers will be transformed into collaborative partners, these people will, by now, most likely have visited Japan and would have a connection with Japan, willing to spread the word to other potential customers overseas, like how they once were.

This initiative has many steps to create Japan into a more tourist-friendly destination, by including more nightlife in cities, they made English more accessible for foreigners trying to navigate, and by promoting areas in Japan that were the inspirations for anime. Cool Japan has helped raise the Japanese economy, crucial after the economic collapse in the 1990s and the COVID pandemic. 1.15 million tourists brought in 35 billion yen alone from just visiting and buying merchandise from locations featured in differing anime.

Fan bases and merchandise

Anime has heavily influenced Japanese pop culture, which has migrated to all corners of the world. Trends within pop culture can manifest in different ways, varying from social media trends to pop-up cafes.

Pop-up cafes

In the past decade, themed pop-up cafes have gained much popular, bringing in domestic and international tourists. The dishes are usually ones found within the anime, such as the yakisoba burger in Dan da Dan. A trip to the cafe can include exclusive merchandise, and is a hot spot for instagram-worthy pictures.

Cosplay and conventions

Cosplay conventions have gained popularity on a global scale, as it gives a place for anime lovers to unite and show off their creativity and skill. Competitions for best cosplay, most creative, and other categories, along with vendors selling arts and such, are the main attractions for cosplay comventions. Many of these happen outside of the Japan, with some of the largest conventions happening in the U.S.

Streaming Servies

One of the main benefactors to an increasing surge of popularity of anime on a global scale is due to how accessible anime has become. Prior to streaming services such as Netflix and Crunchyroll, anime were streamed at a set time on cable television, limiting the audiences to a domestic base. Streaming services have allowed for people on a global scale to interact with anime from all genres and time periods.

Merchandise internationally

According to Grandview Research, the U.S. anime merchandise market was projected to be at $554.7 million in 2024, and is estimated to grow 18.2% in the next 5 years. Increased viewership on streaming platforms and anime conventions has been a leading benefactor as to why the merch market has expanded so much. One of the main markets for merchandise is with clothing, with many companies such as UNIQLO attempting to obtain licenses to produce clothing featuring certain anime, such as Jujutsu Kaisen.

courtesy of Grandview Research

Merchandise domestically

In Japan, up until the 1990s, a lot of merchandise were less elaborate, often being simple toys made from plastic or rubber. It was, and still is, common for magazines in Japan to come with little toys or collectibles, an incentive to purchase the magazine. Later on, especially in the 90s, clothing trends surrounding anime were on the rise, along with posters and collector edition DVDs were incredibly popular. Now, in the 21st century, independent artists and larger companies alike are collaborating to produce merchandise of all forms, from phone cases to home decoration, attempting to create a global merchandise market that suits every individual desires.

Citations

Ayvazyan, Anna. “Pop-up Cafes in Japan: A Short History and Overview! - Tokyotreat Blog.” TokyoTreat, 1 Apr. 2025, tokyotreat.com/blog/pop-up-cafes-in-japan-a-short-history-and-overview. Accessed 02 May 2025.

“Cool Japan Strategy.” Cabinet Office Home Page, 3 Sept. 2019, www.cao.go.jp/cool_japan/english/index-e.html. Accessed 02 May 2025.

Dahlberg-David, Hannah E. “(Pdf) Talking like a Shōnen Hero: Reframing Masculinity in Post-Bubble Era Japan through the Lens of Boku and Ore.” Ohio State University , Oct. 2018, www.researchgate.net/publication/319098033_Talking_like_a_Shonen_Hero_Reframing_masculinity_in_post-bubble_era_Japan_through_the_lens_of_boku_and_ore. Accessed 02 May 2025.

Holmberg, Ryan. “Manga Shōnen: Katō Ken’ichi and the Manga Boys.” Mechademia: Second Arc, vol. 8, 2013, pp. 173–93. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5749/mech.8.2013.0173. Accessed 2 May 2025.

Loo, Egan. “Oricon: #1 Manga Mag for Japanese Girls Is...Shonen Jump.” Anime News Network, 10 Apr. 2007, www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-04-10/oricon-no.1-manga-mag-for-japanese-girls-is-cite-shonen-jump/cite. Accessed 02 May 2025.

Matteo. “The History of Mushi Pro – 01 – the Road to TV Anime (1960-1965).” Animétudes, 8 Apr. 2023, animetudes.com/2023/04/07/mushi-01-tv-anime/. Accessed 02 May 2025.

“New Cool Japan Strategy.” Cabinet Office Home Page, 4 June 2024, www.cao.go.jp/cool_japan/english/index-e.html. Accessed 02 May 2025.

Ranieri , Alessandro. “Shonen Jump - the Magazine That Shaped the World of Manga.” Sabukaru, 4 July 2022, sabukaru.online/articles/shonen-jump-the-magazine-that-shaped-mangas-world. Accessed 02 May 2025.

“The Rise and Fall of Weekly Shonen Jump: A Look at the Circulation of Weekly Jump.” ComiPress, 6 Apr. 2007, www.comipress.com/article/2007/05/06/1923. Accessed 02 May 2025.

“Shōnen | Definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary.” Cambridge Dictionary , dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/shonen. Accessed 02 May 2025.

“U.S. Anime Merchandising Market Size, Share: Report, 2030.” U.S. Anime Merchandising Market Size, Share | Report, 2030, www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/us-anime-merchandising-market-report#:~:text=Many%20apparel%20companies%20are%20obtaining,dedicated%20fans%20and%20casual%20consumers. Accessed 02 May 2025.

Wong, Wendy Siuyi. Globalizing Manga: From Japan to Hong Kong and Beyond. University of Minnesota Press, 2010.

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