Oman (Arabic: عمان‎ ‘Umān), officially the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلطنة عُمان‎ Salṭanat ‘Umān), is an Arab country in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates on the northwest, Saudi Arabia on the west and Yemen on the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the south and east and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The country also contains Madha, an exclave enclosed by the United Arab Emirates, and Musandam, an exclave also separated by Emirati territory.

Sultanate of Oman سلطنة عُمان Salṭanat ‘Umān
Flag National Emblem
Motto: none
Anthem: Nashid as-Salaam as-Sultani
Capital (and largest city)		Muscat 23°36′N 58°33′E / 23.6°N 58.55°E / 23.6; 58.55
Official languages		Arabic
Demonym		Omani
Government		Islamic absolute monarchy
-	Sultan	Qaboos bin Said al Said
-	Chancellor	Fahad ibn Mahmood Al Said
Establishment
-	Imamate established[1]	751
-	Constitution	1966

History

[edit] Stone Age

Wattayah, located in the governorate of Muscat, is the oldest human settlement and dates to the Stone Age, making it around 10,000 years old. Archaeological remains from different dates have been discovered here, the earliest representing the Stone Age, then the Heliocentric Age and finally, the Bronze Age. Findings have consisted of stone implements, animal bones, shells and fire hearths. The latter date back to 7615 BC and are the oldest signs of human settlement in the area. Other discoveries include hand-moulded pottery bearing distinguishing pre-Bronze Age marks, heavy flint implements made from slivers of quartz, and sharp, pointed tools and scrapers. On a mountain rock-face in the same district, animal drawings have been discovered. Similar drawings have also been found in the Wadi Sahtan and Wadi Bani Kharus areas of Rustaq. These drawings consist of human figures carrying weapons and being confronted by wild animals. Siwan in Haima is another Stone Age location and some of the archaeological finds have included arrowheads, knives, chisels and circular stones which have been used to throw at animals.

[edit] Oman before Islam

Oman's Names Sumerian tablets refer to a country called Magan, a name thought to refer to Oman’s ancient copper mines. Mezoun is derived from the word muzn, which means abundant flowing water. The name we call the country by today, Oman, is believed to originate from the Arab tribes who migrated to its territory from the Uman region of Yemen. Many tribes settled in Oman making a living by fishing, herding or stock breeding and many present day Omani families are able to trace their ancestral routes to other parts of Arabia.

From the 6th century BC to the arrival of Islam in the 7th century AD, Oman was controlled and/or influenced by three Persian dynasties, the Achaemenids, Parthians and Sassanids. Achaemenids in the 6th century BC controlled and influenced the Oman peninsula. This was most likely exerted from a coastal center such as Sohar. By about 250 B.C. the Parthian dynasty brought the Persian Gulf under their control and extended their influence as far as Oman. Because they needed to control the Persian Gulf trade route, the Parthians established garrisons in Oman. In the third century A.D. the Sasanids succeeded the Parthians and held the area until the rise of Islam four centuries later.^[4]

[edit] The arrival of Islam

On the advent of Islam, the faith reached Oman during the Prophet Muhammad's P.B.U.H lifetime. The conversion of Omanis is usually ascribed to Amr ibn al-As, who visited the region by the middle of the eighth century AD. The Omanis were among the first people to embrace Islam voluntarily In around 630 AD when the Prophet Muhammed P.B.U.H sent his envoy Amr ibn Al As to meet Jaifar and ‘Abd, the joint rulers of Oman at that time - to invite them to accept the faith. In accepting Islam, Oman became an Ibadhi state, ruled by an elected leader, the Imam. During the early years of the Islamic mission Oman played a major role in the Wars of Apostasy that occurred after the death of Muhammad P.B.U.H and also took part in the great Islamic conquests by land and sea in Iraq, Persia and beyond. However, its most prominent role in this respect was through its extensive trading and seafaring activities in East Africa, particularly during the19th century, when it propagated Islam in many of East Africa’s coastal regions, and certain areas of Central Africa. Omanis also carried the message of Islam with them to China and the Asian ports.Oman was ruled by Umayyads between 661-750, Abbasids between 750-931, 932-933 and 934-967, Qarmatians between 931-932 and between 933-934, Buyids between 967-1053, Seljuks of Kirman between 1053-1154.

[edit] The Portuguese settlement

The Portuguese occupied Muscat for a 140-year period 1508–1648, arriving a decade after Vasco da Gama discovered the seaway to India. In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Europeans built up and fortified the city, where remnants of their colonial architectural style still remain. Revolting tribes drove out the Portuguese, but were pushed out themselves about a century later 1741 by the leader of a Yemeni tribe leading a massive army from various other tribes, who began the current line of ruling sultans. A brief Persian invasion a few years later was the final time Oman would be ruled by a foreign power. Oman has been self governing ever since.

[edit] Oman and East African Empire

In the 1690s Saif bin Sultan, the imam of Oman, pressed down the east African coast. A major obstacle was Fort Jesus, housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at Mombasa. After a two-year siege, it fell to Saif in 1698. Thereafter the Omanis easily ejected the Portuguese from Zanzibar and from all other coastal regions north of Mozambique. Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main slave market of the east African coast, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the greatest 19th century sultan of Oman, Sa'id ibn Sultan, to make it from 1837 his main place of residence. Sa'id built impressive palaces and gardens in Zanzibar. He improved the island's economy by introducing cloves, sugar and indigo though at the same time he accepted a financial loss in cooperating with British attempts to end Zanzibar's slave trade. The link with Oman was broken after his death in 1856. Rivalry between his two sons was resolved, with the help of forceful British diplomacy, when one of them, Majid, succeeded to Zanzibar and to the many regions claimed by the family on the east African coast. The other, Thuwaini, inherited Muscat and Oman.

[edit] Dhofar rebellion

The Dhofar Rebellion was launched in the province of Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman and Britain from 1962 to 1975. It ended with intervention of Iranian Imperial Forces and defeat of the rebels, but the state of Oman had to be radically reformed and modernized to cope with the campaign.

[edit] Politics

Chief of state and government is the hereditary sultān, Qaboos bin Said Al Said who appoints a cabinet called the "Diwans" to assist him. In the early 1990s, the sultan instituted an elected advisory council, the Majlis ash-Shura, though few Omanis were eligible to vote. Universal suffrage for those over 21 was instituted on 4 October 2003. Over 190,000 people (74% of those registered) voted to elect the 84 seats.^[5] Two women were elected to seats. The country today has three women ministers Rawiyah bint Saud al Busaidiyah - Minister of Higher Education, Sharifa bint Khalfan al Yahya'eyah - Minister of Social Development and Rajiha bint Abdulamir bin Ali al lawati - Minister of Tourism. There are no legal political parties nor, at present, any active opposition movement. As more and more young Omanis return from education abroad, it seems likely that the traditional, tribal-based political system will have to be adjusted.^[6] A State Consultative Council, established in 1981, consisted of 55 appointed representatives of government, the private sector, and regional interests.

[edit] Military

Oman's armed forces, including Royal Household troops foreign personnel numbered 41,700 in 2002. The army had 25,000 personnel equipped with over 100 main battle tanks and 37 Scorpion tanks. The air force of 4,100 operates 40 combat aircraft. The navy numbers 4,200 with 13 patrol and coastal combatants. Paramilitary includes the Tribal Home Guard (Firqats) of 4,000 organized in small tribal teams, a police coast guard of 400, and a small police air wing. The elite Royal Household brigade, naval unit, and air unit number 6,400, including 2 special forces regiments. In 2001 Oman spent $2.4 billion on defense or 12.2% of GDP.The greater number of the troops are mercenaries from the Mekran coast of Gwadar which was under Oman till 1955. However under a deal the people can be recruited into the Omanese army.

[edit] Governorates and regions of Oman

The Sultanate is divided into nine governorates and regions. Each governorate consists of states share common cultures, habits, Arabic dialects, history, traditional clothing and traditional occupations.

The Governorate of Muscat is the most densely populated region in the Sultanate with a population of more than half a million. It is Oman's political, economic, and administrative center. Muscat is host to a balance between the traditional heritage of Omani society and the modern contemporary features. This preserves Oman’s historical and cultural identity while presenting Muscat's embrace of modernity.

The Governorate of Dhofar is in the far south of the Sultanate and borders on the Wusta Region the east, the Arabian Sea to the south, the Republic of Yemen to the west and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the north and north-west.

The Governorate of Musandam lies in extreme north of the Sultanate. It is separated from the rest of the Sultanate by a strip of United Arab Emirates land. It is distinguished for its strategic location, with a section of it known as Ras Musandam overlooking the international water passage called the Strait of Hormuz.

It is worth noting that not the whole of the Strait is good for navigation. The part suitable for sea navigation falls within the territorial waters of the Sultanate, requiring Omanis to shoulder a large responsibility in organizing navigation in this Strait for centuries. The strategic importance of this Strait has increased recently, as it has become a crossing point for 90% of the Persian Gulf's oil shipped to all over the world.

The Governorate of Buraimi is situated in the northwest corner of the Sultanate, adjacent to the borders with United Arab Emirates . It has a number of historic forts and houses. Its main forts are al Khandaq, which has been adopted as the emblem of the Governorate , and Al Hillah Fort. Both these forts have recently been restored by the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture.

The Batinah Region occupies a coastal strip along the Gulf of Oman from the state of Barka in the south to Khatmat Malahah in the state of Shinas to the north. The wide strip is enclosed by the Gulf of Oman to the east and the foothills of the Western Hajar mountains to the west.

The Ad Dhahirah Region is a semi desert plain which slopes from the southern foot of Al Hajr AI Gharbi Mountains towards the Empty Quarter. It is separated from A’Dakhliyah Region by Al Kur Mountain to the East; it joins the Empty Quarter from the West and Wusta Region from the south. state of Ibri is distinguished for its unique location which joins the Sultanate with other areas in the Arabian Peninsula.

The Dakhiliah Region is rich in economic and natural resources and has numerous tourist attractions including forts, castles, towers, old residential quarters and historic mosques. The state of Nizwa has a famous and imposing fort, several old mosques and a traditional souq, while Bahla Fort is one of the treasures of the human heritage. Misfah al Abriyeen in the state of al Hamra is a splendid example of a hanging village.

The Sharqiyah Region forms the northeast coast of Oman and overlooks the Arabian Sea from the east. It includes the internal side of Al Hajr Al sharqi mountains which join it from the north. It also joins Wahibah Sand from the south and Dakhliah Region from the west. The city of Sur is one of the regional centers and the most important of Sharqiyah cities. It played a historical rule in trade and navigation in the Indian Ocean. It was also known for ship building, as it was the most renowned city in the Arabian Peninsula in ship building in the last century. Besides marine activity and ship building, Sur is famous for some historical tourist destinations such as caves. It is also well-known for its wood industries, textiles and agricultural crops.

The Wusta Region is situated to the south of both Dakhliah and Dhahirah Regions, at the east side it is linked to the Arabian Sea, at the west to the Empty Quarter and at the south to Governorate of Dhofar. It includes a large central area of the Sultanate. It is distinguished for having a great number of oil wells.

[edit] Geography

Geography of Oman
Coastline	2,092 km
Bordering countries	Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen

A vast gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges along the north (al Jebel al Akhdar) and southeast coast, where the country's main cities are also located: the capital city Muscat, Matrah and Sur in the north, and Salalah in the south.

Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast. During past epochs Oman was covered by ocean. Fossilized shells exist in great numbers in areas of the desert away from the modern coastline. The peninsula of Musandam (Musandem), which has a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz, is separated from the rest of Oman by the United Arab Emirates and is thus an exclave. The series of small towns known collectively as Dibba are the gateway to the Musandam peninsula on land and the fishing villages of Musandam by sea. Boats may be hired at Khasab for trips into the Musandam peninsula by sea. Oman has one other exclave, inside UAE territory, known as Madha. It is located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the rest of Oman.^[7] Belonging to Musandam governorate, it covers approximately 75 km² (29 sq mi). The boundary was settled in 1969. The north-east corner of Madha is closest to the Fujairah road, barely 10 m (32.8 ft) away. Within the exclave is a UAE enclave called Nahwa, belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about 8 km (5 mi) on a dirt track west of the town of New Madha. It consists of about forty houses with its own clinic and telephone exchange.^[8]

[edit] Climate

Annual rainfall in Muscat averages 10 cm (4 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to 64 cm (25 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October. While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching 54°C (129°F) in the hot season, from May to September.

[edit] Flora and fauna

Desert shrub and desert grass, common to southern Arabia, are found. Vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is largely gravel desert. The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer. Coconut palms grow plentifully in Dhofar and Frankincense grows in the hills. Oleander and varieties of Acacia abound.

Indigenous mammals include the Leopard, Hyena, Fox, Wolf, and Hare, Oryx, Ibex, Tahr. Birds include the Vulture, Eagle, Stork, Bustard, Arabian Partridge, Bee Eater, Falcon and Sunbird.

[edit] Environment

Maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is Oman's most pressing environmental problem. The nation has limited renewable water resources, with 94% used in farming and 2% for industrial activity. Drinking water is available throughout the country, either piped or delivered. Both drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply. The nation's soil has shown increased levels of salinity. Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent problem. In 2001, the nation had nine endangered species of mammals and five endangered types of bird. Nineteen plant species are also threatened with extinction. Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species, which include the Arabian Leopard, Arabian oryx, mountain gazelle, goitered gazelle, Arabian tahr, green sea turtle, hawksbill turtle and olive ridley turtle. In 2007 Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary became the first site ever deleted from UNESCO's World Heritage list because of the government's decision to reduce the site to 10% of its former size.^[9]

[edit] Demographics

Demographics of Oman
Languages	Arabic,English,Balochi and Swahili
Religion	Islam
Ethnic groups	Arab, South Asian and African
Life expectancy	73.13 years

The Ministry of Economy estimates that in mid 2006 the total population was 2.577 million. Of those, 1.844 million were Omanis. The population has grown from 2.018 million in the 1993 census to 2.340 million in the 2003 census. In Oman, about 50% of the population lives in Muscat and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital; about 200,000 live in the Dhofar (southern) region, and about 30,000 live in the remote Musandam Peninsula on the Strait of Hormuz. Some 600,000 expatriates live in Oman, most of whom are guest workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Jordan, India and the Philippines.

Historical populations
Year	Pop.		Change
1910	249,000		16.4%
1920	290,000		16.5%
1930	337,000		16.2%
1940	392,000		16.3%
1950	413,000		5.4%
1960	505,000		22.3%
1970	654,000		29.5%
1980	1,060,000		62.1%
1990	1,625,000		53.3%
2000	2,402,000		47.8%
Est. 2006	2,577,000		7.3%

[edit] Religion

About 75% of the population consists of Ibadhi Muslims.^[10] Sunni Muslims, Shi'i Muslims, and other minorities make up the remainder of the population.^[10]

The Government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, but most citizens are either Ibadhi or Sunni Muslims. Shi'a Muslims form a small but well-integrated minority of less than 5 percent of the population, concentrated in the capital area and along the northern coast. Ibadhism, a form of Islam distinct from Shi'ism and the "orthodox" schools of Sunnism, historically has been the country's dominant religious group, and the Sultan is a member of the Ibadhi community.

Non-Muslim religious communities individually constitute less than 5 percent of the population and include various groups of Hindus, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Baha'is, and Christians. Christian communities are centered in the major urban areas of Muscat, Sohar, and Salalah and include Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and various Protestant congregations. These groups tend to organize along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than fifty different Christian groups, fellowships, and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area. The majority of non-Muslims are noncitizen immigrant workers from South Asia, although there are small communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians that have been naturalized.^[11]

[edit] Economy

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Economy of Oman
Currency	Omani Riyal (R$, OMR)
Fiscal year	Calendar year
Central Bank	Central Bank of Oman
Stock Market	Muscat Stock Market

Omani citizens enjoy good living standards, but the future is uncertain with Oman's limited oil reserves.^[12] The other sources of income, agriculture and local industries, are small in comparison and count for less than 1% of the country's exports. Agriculture, often subsistence in its character, produces Dates, Limes, Grains and vegetables. Less than 1% of the country is under cultivation but, in general, food has to be imported. Industries contribute only with 4%, but there are governmental plans to increase this.

Oil production is extracted and processed by Petroleum Development Oman. In recent years, proven oil reserves have been holding approximately steady, although oil production has been decreasing.^[13][14] Oman has other mineral resources including Copper, Asbestos and Marble, but this is little exploited.

[edit] Oil and gas

Commercial export of oil began in 1967 and since Sultan Qaboos' accession to the throne in 1970, many more oil fields have been found and developed. In June 1999, PDO discovered a new oil field in southern Oman after drilling and testing three wells which demonstrated the commercial viability of the reservoir. This is the most significant find in five years. Work is continuing on the RO 503.876 million ( US$1,300 million ) oil refinery project in Sohar, which was due to go into operation in 2006 with a 116,400 barrels a day refining capacity. In 2004, Oman Oil Refinery was supplied with about 78,200 barrels a day for refining, while PDO began using steam injection technology in several wells to increase their productivity. Oman's future economy is expected to depend on Sohar, which is growing very fast.

Since the slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, such as tourism and natural gas. Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that, "The National Economy is based on justice and the principles of a free economy."

[edit] Mineral resources

Oman's mineral resources include chromite, dolomite, zinc, limestone, gypsum, silicon, copper, gold, cobalt and iron. Several industries have grown up around them as part of the national development process which, in turn, have boosted the minerals sector’s contribution to the nation’s GDP as well as providing jobs for Omanis.

Copper has been mined in Oman for thousands of years. The mineral sector’s operations include mining and quarrying. Several projects have recently been completed including: an economic feasibility study on silica ore in Wadi Buwa and Abutan in the Wusta Region, which confirmed that there were exploitable reserves of around 28 million tonnes at the two sites; a feasibility study on the production of magnesium metal from dolomite ore; a draft study on processing limestone derivatives; a project to produce geological maps of the Sharqiyah Region ; economic feasibility studies on the exploitation of gold and copper ores in the Ghaizeen area; a study on raw materials in the wilayats of Duqm and Sur for use in the Sultanate’s cement industry; and a study on the construction of a new minerals laboratory in Ghala in the Governorate of Muscat.

[edit] Industry

The industrial sector is a cornerstone of the Sultanate’s long-term (1996-2020) development strategy. Industry is not only one of the main sectors involved in diversifying the sources of national income and reducing dependence on oil; it is also capable of helping to meet Oman’s social development needs and generate greater added value for national resources by processing them into manufactured products.

The Seventh Five-Year Development Plan creates the conditions for an attractive investment climate. Under its strategy for the industrial sector the government also aims to develop the information technology and telecommunications industries. The Knowledge Oasis Muscat complex has been set up and expanded, and Omani companies are developing their technological potential through collaboration with various Japanese and German institutions.

There is also an industrial estate in Sohar - where the Sultanate’s heavy industries are based - as well as other estates in Sur, Salalah, Nizwa and Buraimi. Natural gas is transported to the industrial estates in Sohar and Salalah, helping to promote expansion of those industries that depend on natural gas; the government grants these industries tax exemptions, as an incentive to encourage their expansion and development. By 2020 the industrial sector is expected to contribute 15% to the country’s GDP.

[edit] Development plans

The Omani economy has been radically transformed over a series of development plans beginning with the First Five­-year Plan (1976-1980). At Sultan Qaboos's instruction, a vision of Oman's economic future up to the year 2020 was set out at the end of the first phase of the country's develop­ment 1970-1995. Vision 2020, outlined the country's economic and social goals over the 25 years of the second phase of the development process (1996­-2020).

Oman 2020, held in June 1995, has developed the following aims with regard to securing Oman's future prosperity and growth:

• To have economic and financial stability
• To reshape the role of the Government in the economy and to broaden private sector participation
• To diversify the economic base and sources of national income
• To globalize the Omani economy
• To upgrade the skills of the Omani workforce and develop human resources

A free-trade agreement with the United States took effect 1 January 2009, eliminating tariff barriers on all consumer and industrial products. It also provides strong protections for foreign businesses investing in Oman.^[15]

[edit] Tourism

Oman is known for its popular tourist attractions. Wadis, deserts, beaches, and mountains are areas which make Oman unique to its neighboring GCC nations (Wadis in particular). With a coastline of 1700 km, Oman offers some of the cleanest, most stunning beaches a visitor could hope to see. Few beaches are private, except some attached to the beach resort hotels, or those adjoining military or official property. Weekend picnics and barbecues are popular on the beach. Many coves are perfect for snorkelling and with fairly gentle shelves, are good for children.Wadis are green, lush oases of palm trees, grasses, and flowering. Some wadis have year-round running water, with deep, cool pools in which it is quite safe to swim if the currents are slow.Falaj (pl. aflaaj) means a system for the distribution of water and is commonly used to describe the irrigation channel system downstream of the water's source.Some aflaaj in Oman were built more than 1,500 years ago, whilst others were built at the beginning of the 20th century. The genius of the Omani builders is evident in the way they tunnelled into the ground to a depth of dozens of metres in order to gain access to the groundwater. These channels were truly a miracle of engineering at a time when mechanical equipment was not available. Forts and Castles are Oman's most striking cultural landmarks and, together with its towers and city walls, they have historically been used as defensive bastions or look-out points. Forts were often the seats of administrative and judicial authority. There are over 500 forts, castles and towers in Oman which has a coastline of 1,700 km, so they were needed to protect it from potential invaders. The architectural styles vary, being determined by the architects who built them or the periods in which they were built.The traditional Arabic market place is called the souq and these are found in many of the towns throughout the Sultanate. One of the oldest preserved souqs in Oman is in Muttrah, on the Corniche. Gold and silver jewellery is found in abundance as well as numerous wooden carvings, ornaments and spices. Muttrah souq is a maze of pathways leading in and out of each other. 'Household' goods make up the bulk of the souq, but browsing through some of the smaller shops may result in a lucky find. Bargaining is a must, however. Gold and silver are well priced and mainly sold by weight. Good buys are silver khanjars (the traditional Omani dagger, worn by men) and incense burners. Today,the Capital area has a number of shopping malls, mainly situated in Qurum, but in recent times, spreading to the Al Khuwair area, which house a variety of shops, ranging from boutiques to chain stores. The largest mall in the country is the Muscat City Centre. Other popular tourist activities include sand skiing in the desert, Scuba Diving, Rock Climbing/Trekking, Surfing & Sailing, Cave Exploration and Bull Fight/Camel Race.The Muscat Festival is usually held at the beginning of every year. During this event, traditional dances are held, temporary theme parks open, and concerts take place. Another popular event is The Khareef Festival, which is similar to Muscat Festival; however it is held in August in Salalah, Dhofar. During this latter event, mountains are packed as a result of the cool breeze weather during that period of time which rarely occurs in Muscat.

[edit] Labour

The estimated workforce was 920,000 in 2002. A large proportion of the population were still engaged in subsistence agriculture or fishing. The skilled local labour force is small, and many of the larger industries depend on foreign workers from Pakistan, Bangladesh, the Philippines, India, and Sri Lanka — foreign laborers constituted over 80% of the modern-sector workforce in 1996.

Omani law does not provide the right of union formation. The law forbids a strike for any reason. Collective bargaining is not permitted, however there exist labour-management committees in firms with more than 50 workers. These committees are not authorized to discuss conditions of employment, including hours and wages. The Labour Welfare Board provides a venue for grievances.

The minimum working age is 13, but this provision is not enforced against the employment of children in family businesses or on family farms. The minimum wage for non-professional workers was $260 per month in 2002. However, many classes of workers (domestic servants, farmers, government employees) are not required to receive the minimum wage and the government is not consistent in its enforcement of the minimum wage law. The private sector working week is 40 to 45 hours long, while government officials have a 35-hour working week.

[edit] Inflation

As oil prices have risen to a record high, so has inflation. The government depends mostly on oil revenue, more than on tax returns from companies and other government-owned companies. The government is also Oman's largest employer, so the high interest that government gets increases the prices of food and construction equipment. The government did support the fuel prices so it doesn't increase the inflation and to make the price suitable for people on low wages.

In 2006, government employee salaries were increased by 15%, placing Oman in the category of high-medium income countries.^{[citation needed]} and a year after increase employees' were also increased in salaries so, employees with low wages have a higher increase that may go up to 48% and employees who earn more get a lesser increase in their salaries which end at 5%. The minimum wage has been changed from 120 Rial a month to 140 Rials because of high records of inflation driven by high prices of oil.

[edit] Transport

[edit] Education

Before 1970, only three formal schools existed in the whole country with less than 1000 students receiving education in them. Since Sultan Qaboos came to power in 1970, the government has given high priority to education to develop a domestic work force, which the government considers a vital factor in the country's economic and social progress. Today there are over 1000 state schools and about 650,000 students. In 1986, Oman's first university, Sultan Qaboos University, opened. Other post secondary institutions include a law school, technical college, banking institute, teachers training college, and health sciences institute. Some 200 scholarships are awarded each year for study abroad.

Pre-university education in Oman has three stages: primary, preparatory, and secondary. Six years of primary schooling are followed by preparatory school. Academic results of the preparatory exams determine the type of secondary education the student will receive.

Nine private colleges exist, providing 2-year post secondary diplomas. Since 1999, the government has embarked on reforms in higher education designed to meet the needs of a growing population, only a small percentage of which are currently admitted to higher education institutions. Under the reformed system, four public regional universities will be created, and incentives are provided by the government to promote the upgrading of the existing nine private colleges and the creation of other degree-granting private colleges.

The adult illiteracy rate was estimated at 28.1% for the year 2000 (males, 19.6%; females, 38.3%). In 1998, there were 411 primary schools with 313,516 students and 12,052 teachers. Student-to-teacher ratio stood at 26 to 1. In secondary schools in 1998, there were 12,436 teachers and 217,246 students. As of 1999, 65% of primary-school-age children were enrolled in school, while 59% of those eligible attended secondary school. In the same year, public expenditure on education was estimated at3.9% of GDP. In 1993, there were 252 literacy centers and 176 adult education centers. Three teachers' colleges were functioning as of 1986. The Institute of Agriculture at Nazwa became a full college by 1985. Sultan Qaboos University opened in 1986. In 1998, all higher-level institutions had 1,307 teachers and 16,032 students.

[edit] Science and technology

Most research conducted in Oman has been done at the behest of the government; agriculture, minerals, water resources, and marine sciences have drawn the most attention. Sultan Qaboos University, founded in 1985, has colleges of science, medicine, engineering, and agriculture. In 1987–97, science and engineering students accounted for 13% of college and university enrollments. The Institute of Health Sciences, under the Ministry of Health, was founded in 1982. Muscat Technical Industrial College, founded in 1984, has departments of computing and mathematics, laboratory science, and electrical, construction, and mechanical engineering. The Oman Natural History Museum, founded in 1983, includes the national herbarium and the national shell collection. All of these organizations are located in Muscat.

[edit] Meteorites

The central desert of Oman is an important source of meteorites for scientific analysis.^[16] Since 1999, search campaigns in Oman have provided about 20% of the world's meteorites. These include rare meteorites from Mars and the Moon. The meteorite accumulations in the gravelly central desert play an important role in increasing knowledge of conditions in the early solar system.

[edit] Health

As of 1999, there were an estimated 1.3 physicians and 2.2 hospital beds per 1,000 people. In 1993, 89% of the population had access to health care services. In 2000, 40% of the population had access to health care services.^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Culture

Although Arabic is Oman's official language, there are native speakers of different dialects, as well as Balochi (the language of the Baloch from western-Pakistan and eastern Iran), or offshoots of Southern Arabian, a Semitic language only distantly related to Arabic, but closely related to Semitic languages in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Swahili and French are also widely spoken in the country due to the historical relations between Oman and Zanzibar the two languages have been linked historically. The dominant indigenous language is a dialect of Arabic and the country has also adopted English as a second language. Almost all signs and writings appear in both Arabic and English. A significant number also speak Hindi, due to the influx of Indian migrants during the late 1980s and the 1990s.

Oman is famous for its khanjar knives, which are curved daggers worn during holidays as part of ceremonial dress. Today traditional clothing is worn by most Omani men. They wear an ankle-length, collarless robe called a dishdasha that buttons at the neck with a tassel hanging down. Traditionally this tassel would be dipped in perfume. Today the tassel is merely a traditional part of the dishdasha.

Women wear hijabs and abayas. Some women cover their faces and hands, but most do not. The abaya is a traditional dress and it is currently having different styles. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in public office. On holidays, such as Eid, the women wear traditional dress, which is often very brightly colored and consists of a mid-calf length tunic over pants.

A very important part of Omani culture is hospitality. If invited into an Omani house, a visitor is likely to be greeted with a bowl of dates, qahwa (coffee with cardamom - standard Arabic قهوة) and fruit. The coffee is served fairly weak in a small cup, which should be shaken after three servings to show that you have finished. The dates are in lieu of sugar. Halwa and other sweets are often given at celebrations such as Eids.

[edit] Food

The Omani people are well known for their hospitality and offers of refreshment. To be invited into someone's home will mean coffee kahwa, a strong, bitter drink flavoured with cardamom, and dates or halwa, a sticky sweet gelatinous substance which is made from brown sugar, eggs, honey and spices. It can be flavoured with many different ingredients, such as nuts, rosewater or even chocolate. Lokhemat is another accompaniment to coffee, which are balls of flour and yeast flavoured with cardamom and deep fried until golden then served with a sweet lime and cardamom syrup. The sweetness of this dish often counteracts the bitterness of the kahwa. More substantial meals often have rice as the main ingredient, together with cooked meats. The main daily meal is usually eaten at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. Maqbous is a rice dish, tinged yellow with saffron and cooked over a spicy red or white meat. Aursia is a festival meal, served during celebrations, which consists of mashed rice flavoured with spices. Another popular festival meal is shuwa, which is meat cooked very slowly (sometimes for up to two days) in an underground clay oven. The meat becomes extremely tender and it is impregnated with spices and herbs before cooking to give it a very distinct taste. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the kingfish is a popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal comprising whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice. The rukhal bread is a thin, round bread originally baked over a fire made from palm leaves. It is eaten at any meal, typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry for dinner.

Traditional Omani Food

It is fairly simple, but by using various marinades and impregnating meat with spices, the result is a mouth-watering concoction which stimulates the tastebuds. Chicken, fish and mutton are regularly used in dishes. A favourite drink is laban, a salty buttermilk. Yoghurt drinks, flavoured with cardamom and pistachio nuts are also very popular.

Although spices, herbs, onion, garlic and lime are liberally used in traditional Omani cuisine, unlike similar Asian food, it is not hot. Omani cuisine is also distinct from the indigenous foods of other Gulf states and even varies within the Sultanate's different regions. The differences between some of the dishes prepared in Salalah, in the south, and those prepared in Muscat, in the north, are so marked that it is difficult to find anything common between them. However, one delight that remains a symbol of Omani hospitality throughout the country are the ubiquitous dates, served with khawa, or Omani coffee. Khawa is prepared from freshly roasted ground coffee mixed with cardamom powder.

Special dishes are prepared for festive occasions. The Islamic world celebrates two main religious festivals - Eid Al Fitr and Eid Al Adha. Eid Al Fitr is celebrated following the Holy Month of Ramadan when people complete their obligatory fasting for 30 days. Eid Al Adha is celebrated on completing the Haj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, commemorating the sacrifice of Abraham. Dishes prepared during Ramadan are very seldom cooked on other occasions.

Food cooked on important occasions, such as Eid, is of an infinite variety. Omanis across the country serve an array of dishes. In Dhofar and Wusta, the festivities start with ruz al mudhroub, a dish made of cooked rice and served with fried fish, and maqdeed, special dried meat. In Muscat, Al Batinah, Dahira and Sharqiya regions, muqalab, a dish of tripe and pluck cooked with crushed or ground spices (cinnamon, cardamom, clove, back pepper, ginger, garlic and nutmeg), dominates the menu. Other dishes served during Eid festivities include arsia, a dish of lamb meat cooked with rice, and mishkak, skewered meat grilled on charcoal.

Lunch on the first day of Eid is usually harees, which is made from wheat mixed with meat. Lunch on the second day is mishkak, while on the third and last day, shuwa forms the whole day's meal. However, it is during Ramadan that one can experience Omani food at its best and two of the most popular traditional dishes served at Iftar, the breaking of the fast include sakhana, a thick, sweet soup made of wheat, date, molasses and milk and fatta, a meat and vegetable dish, mixed with khubz rakhal, thin Omani bread, made out of unleavened dough.

Shuwa is a typically Omani delicacy prepared only on very special occasions. Whole villages participate in the cooking of the dish which consists of a whole cow or goat roasted for up to two days in an special oven prepared in a pit dug in the ground.

The method of preparing shuwa is elaborate. The meat is marinated with red pepper, turmeric, coriander, cumin, cardamom, garlic and vinegar and then wrapped in sacks made of dry banana or palm leaves. These sacks are then thrown into the smoldering oven, which is covered with a lid and sealed so that no smoke escapes. In some villages, the meat is cooked for 24 hours while in others it is believed that meat tastes better after 48 hours.

Everyday Omani cuisine includes a wide variety of soups - vegetable, lentil, lamb and chicken. Salads are also popular and are usually based around fresh vegetables, smoked eggplant, tuna fish, dried fish or watercress. Main course dishes are extensive and range from marak, a vegetable curry, to assorted kebabs, barbecued, grilled and curried meat, chicken and fish dishes.

Rice is used widely and is served in a variety of ways, from steamed to elaborate concoctions bursting with meat and vegetables. Breads rage from the plain to those flavoured with dates, sesame, thyme and garlic. For desert, Omani halwa, or sweatmeat, is a traditional favourite.

[edit] Male national dress

The national dress for Omani men is a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves called the dishdasha. Underneath the dishdasha, a plain piece of cloth covering the body is worn from the waist down. Omani men may wear a variety of head dresses. The mussar is a square of finely woven woollen or cotton fabric, wrapped and folded into a turban. Underneath this, the kummah, an intricately embroidered cap, is sometimes worn. The shal, a long strip of cloth acting as a holder for the khanjar may be made from the same material as the mussar. Alternatively, the holder may be fashioned in the form of a belt made from leather and silver. On formal occasions, the dishdasha may be covered by a black or beige cloak, called a bisht. The embroidery edging the cloak is often in silver or gold thread and it is intricate in detail. Some men from traditional families carry a stick, which can have practical uses or is simply used as an accessory during formal events.

The Khanjar

The curved dagger, the khanjar is a distinguishing feature of the Omani personality as well as an important symbol of male elegance. It is traditionally worn at the waist.

The shape of the khanjar is always the same and is characterised by the curve of the blade and by the near right- angle bend of the sheath. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate silver or gold-decorated pieces of great beauty and delicacy. In the past the silver khanjars were made by melting down Marie Theresa silver coins. Different types of khanjar are named after the regions in which they are made and vary according to size, shape, type of metal and the overlay. The top of the handle of the most usual khanjar is flat but the "Saidi" type, which takes its name from the Ruling Family, has an ornate cross-shaped top. However, all possess certain common features and have the same components:

• The hilt may be made of costly rhinocerous horn or substitutes such as sandalwood and marble.
• The blade determines the value of the khanjar according to its strength and quality.
• The sadr, or upper part of the sheath, is decorated with silver engraving,
• The sheath, the most striking part of the khanjar madeup of lether, is worked with silver threads.

khanjars are supported on belts of locally made webbing, sometimes interwoven with silver thread or belts of leather covered by finely woven silver wire with handsome silver buckles, and a knife with an ornate handle of silver thread is often stuck into a simple leather pouch behind the sheath.

khanjars are worn on formal occasions and at feasts and holidays, and almost all Omani men boast one.

Once worn in self-defence, the khanjar is today both a fashion accessory and a prestige item much in demand.

[edit] Female national dress

Omani women have very colourful costumes which vary from region to region. The main components of a woman's outfit comprise a dress which is worn over trousers (sirwal) and the headdress, called the lihaf or hijab. The Baluchi dress is also common. It is worn by baluch women. There are numerous traditional styles of Omani costume seen in Muscat. However, there are three main types which show vibrant colours, embroidery and decorations. One style of costume is rather flowing and resembles that worn by the women of the Interior, while another is decorated with distinctive silver bands. The embroidery on these dresses can take around two months to complete. In the Dhofar region(محافظة ظفار), the dress is known as the "Abu Dhail" which means 'one with a tail'. This dress is shorter at the front than at the rear and is made from luxurious velvet or cotton, shot with gold and silver embroidery, beads and sequins. It has a square neckline and is generally worn with a lightweight, cotton or silk sh'ela "head dress" which may also be sewn with pearls, sequins and sometimes small gold coins for special celebrations. Elaborate jewellery is often worn with this dress, around the head, neck, wrists, ankles, fingers and toes. Older ladies, originating from the desert and the mountains may do so.

[edit] Sport

Sports of Oman
Popular Sport	Football, volleyball, hockey.
National Team Sports	5
National Clubs	48
Colors	Red , White

The government aims to give young people a fully rounded education by providing activities and experience in the sporting, cultural, intellectual, social and scientific spheres, and to excel internationally in these areas and for this reason, in October 2004, the government created a Ministry of Sports Affairs to replace the General Organisation for Youth, Sports and Cultural Affairs.

The 2009 Gulf Cup of Nations, the 19th edition, took place in Muscat, Oman, from 4 January to 17 January 2009 and was won by Oman.

The International Olympic Committee awarded the former GOYSCA its prestigious prize for sporting excellence in recognition of its contributions to youth and sports and its efforts to promote the Olympic spirit and goals.

The Oman Olympic Committee played a major part in organizing the highly successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to the sports associations, clubs and young participants. The Football Association took part, along with the Handball, Basketball, Hockey, Volleyball, Athletics, Swimming, and Tennis Associations. In 2010 Muscat will host the 2010 Asian Beach Games for the first time.

_____ Oman F.A. _____

[edit] Challenges

Oman's political challenges are primarily around succession plans. The democratic institutions and processes are still in early development and have not experienced real power. There is some risk of destabilization by radicals backed by militant groups or other states.

Oman's Musandam peninsula is a strategic asset which may become contested in future. Strong military ties with the United Kingdom and the GCC countries helps maintain stability. The growing power of Iran is not considered a concern due to the friendly and historical ties between the two countries.

The demographic challenges are, like in other GCC countries, that a large proportion of the population are non-citizens.

The economic challenge is over-dependence on oil. While this is a benefit during oil price spikes, it is a risk during downturns.

[edit] See also

Cities in Oman Communications in Oman Foreign relations of Oman Human rights in Oman Index of Oman-related articles

Transport in Oman Tourism in Oman Scouting and Guiding in Oman Theweek Cyclone Gonu Al Nuaim

[edit] References

[edit] External links

Government

• Ministry of Information
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs
• Oman Tourism Portal
• State Council
• Majlis As-shura
• Omani sites on the world heritage list
• Chief of State and Cabinet Ministers

General information

• Country Profile from BBC News
• Country Page from Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Oman entry at The World Factbook
• Oman at UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Oman at the Open Directory Project
• Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Oman
• Information and News about Oman
• Oman from the United States Department of State includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
• Wikimedia Atlas of Oman

News media

• Oman state TV and Radio
• Oman newspaper
• Al-Watan newspaper
• Al-Shabiba newspaper
• Oman News
• Times of Oman
• Oman Tribune
• Oman Observer
• The Week

Travel

• Sultanate of Oman
• Oman travel guide from Wikitravel

Embassies at Oman

Oman is a country of enormous diversity and natural beauty, which, while it has much to attract the discerning traveller, had until recent years been largely overlooked by international tourists.
    The government was anxious not to promote the Sultanate to tourists until it was ready to accommodate them. Now, with an enviable infrastructure securely in place, a wide range of international hotels and a wealth of things to see and do, Oman is ready to offer its traditional hospitality to visitors from around the world..

Work on developing further facilities has been constantly ongoing.
Indicative of the importance the government affords this sector was the issue of Royal Decree No. 61/2004, establishing a Ministry of Tourism and appointing a woman as its minister.

Eco-Tourism: Beaches

     With a coastline of 1700km, Oman offers some of the cleanest, most stunning beaches a visitor could hope to see. Few beaches are private, except some attached to the beach resort hotels, or those adjoining military or official property. Weekend picnics and barbeques are popular on the beach. Many coves are perfect for snorkelling and with fairly gentle shelves, are good for children. Some of the beaches in the Muscat capital area include:

Aviation Beach, or Shell Beach,

     Which is located near the Civil Aviation Club in Al Azaiba. A four-wheel drive vehicle is necessary to get down to the water's edge. It is abundant in starfish, crabs and exotic shells.

Qurum Beach

     Qurum Beach, below the Crowne Plaza Hotel, is well set up for visitors and has a number of picnic areas and palm shades. When the tide is low, one can take a 4km walk towards the Embassies' area in Shati Al Qurum. Approximately half way along this stretch of beach is the Muscat InterContinental hotel. Around this area are many jetski rentals.

   

Bandar Jissah

     Bandar Jissah is located near Qantab, on the way to Al Bustan. The bay is quite secluded and the rocks at the foot of the cliffs can be good for exploring when the tide is out. Snorkelling is popular here. There is also a children's playground and snack shop.

 

 

Marjan Beach

      Marjan Beach,  near Petroleum Development Oman (PDO), is quiet during the day, but tends to get livelier in the early evenings. It has some small coral reefs, perfect for the novice snorkeller, as one doesn't have to swim too far out before seeing the likes of clown fish, parrot fish, sea cucumbers and occasionally, turtles and rays. Local fishermen can be seen spearing cuttlefish.

Other beaches...

 

---

Culture: National Dress - Men

The national dress for Omani men is a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves called the dishdasha. The colour most frequently worn is white, although a variety of other colours such as black, blue, brown and lilac can also be seen. Its main adornment is a tassel (furakha) sewn into the neckline, which can be impregnated with perfume. Underneath the dishdasha, a plain piece of cloth covering the body is worn from the waist down. Omani men may wear a variety of head dresses. The muzzar is a square of finely woven woollen or cotton fabric, wrapped and folded into a turban. Underneath this, the kummar, an intricately embroidered cap, is sometimes worn. The shal, a long strip of cloth acting as a holder for the khanjar (a silver, hand-crafted knife or dagger) may be made from the same material as the muzzar. Alternatively, the holder may be fashioned in the form of a belt made from leather and silver, which is called a sapta. On formal occasions, the dishdasha may be covered by a black or beige cloak, called a bisht. The embroidery edging the cloak is often in silver or gold thread and it is intricate in detail. Some men carry the assa, a stick, which can have practical uses or is simply used as an accessory during formal events. Omani men, on the whole, wear sandals on their feet.

The Khanjar

The curved dagger, the khanjar is a distinguishing feature of the Omani personality as well as an important symbol of male elegance. It is traditionally worn at the waist.

The shape of the khanjar is always the same and is characterised by the curve of the blade and by the near right- angle bend of the sheath. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate silver or gold-decorated pieces of great beauty and delicacy. In the
past the silver khanjars were made by melting down Marie Theresa silver coins.
Different types of khan jars are named after the regions in which they are made and vary according to size, shape, type of metal and the overlay. The top of the handle of the most usual khanjar is flat but the "Saidi" type, which takes its name from the Ruling Family, has an ornate cross-shaped top.
 However, all possess certain common features and have the same components:

• The hilt may be made of costly rhinocerous horn or substitutes such as
sandalwood and marble.
• The blade determines the value of the khanjar according to its strength and
quality.
• The sadr, or upper part of the sheath, is decorated with silver engraving,
• The sheath , the most striking part of the khanjar, is worked with silver threads.

Khanjars are supported on belts of locallymade webbing, sometimes interwoven with silver thread or belts of leather covered by finely woven silver wire with handsome silver buckles, and a knife with an ornate handle of silver thread is often stuck into a simple leather pouch behind the sheath.

Khanjars are worn on formal occasions and at feasts and holidays, and almost all Omani men boast one.

Once worn in self-defence, the khanjar is today both a fashion accessory and a prestige item much in demand.

National Dress - Women

Omani women have very colourful costumes which vary from region to region. The main components of a woman's outfit comprise of a dress which is worn over trousers (sirwal) and the headdress, called the lihaf.

There are numerous traditional styles of Omani costume seen in Muscat. However, there are three main types which show vibrant colours, embroidery and decorations. One style of costume is rather flowing and resembles that worn by the women of the Interior, while another is decorated with distinctive silver bands. The embroidery on these dresses can take around two months to complete.

    Muscat
   Dhofar
   Al Batinah
   Al Dakhiliyah
   Al Sharqiyah
    Musandam & Al Dhahirah

The jewellery worn by Omani women is fashioned mainly from gold, although the traditional metal was silver. Work is very intricate and elaborate patterns and symbols, even Quranic calligraphy, is engraved into the metal.

Traditional footwear was a type of platform shoe made from wood called the qurhaf. However, most women now wear sandals or Western-style fashion shoes.

Omani women have used natural cosmetics and beauty preparations for centuries and despite the supply of brand name cosmetics sold in department stores and supermarkets, the traditional products are still available at souqs all over the Sultanate.

Kohl, a dark powder used as an eyeliner made mainly from frankincense or the roots of the arvea jevanica, is still used to enhance the eyes and is applied with a small stick made from silver (marwat) or wood. As a 'moisturiser' women grind the seeds of the prunus mahled together with the yellow pigment of the carthamus tincturius flower. Indigo is also used as a 'skin wash'. The indigo is pounded into a powder and rubbed into the skin, to then be rinsed off with the crushed leaves of the becium dhofarense. This beauty treatment leaves the skin smooth and faintly tinged with blue which enhances the natural skin tone and is complemented by the colours contained within the vibrant dresses and scarves. Indigo is also applied to the face in decorative patterns for festivals and celebrations, such as weddings.

Hair is conditioned with oil extracted from the shoo seeds which is said to make the hair shine and delay the signs of greying. A popular shampoo is made from sidr and ipomoea nil leaves.

Many women in Oman paint their hands and feet with henna, particularly before special occasions such as Eid holidays or weddings. Henna comes from the plant of the same name and is extracted by pounding the leaves into a powder which is then mixed with water to form a thick paste. The paste is applied in patterns on the hands and feet, which, when dried, leaves a temporary orange/brown design which fades after around three weeks.

Omani costumes are so varied, colourful and eye-catching, that the Post Office of Oman has produced postage stamps depicting men's and women's outfits from the different regions.

---

Traditional Omani Food

      The Omani people are well known for their hospitality and offers of refreshment. To be invited into someone's home will mean coffee (kahwa), a strong, bitter drink flavoured with cardamom, and dates or halwa, a sticky sweet gelatinous substance which is made from brown sugar, eggs, honey and spices. It can be flavoured with many different ingredients, such as nuts, rosewater or even chocolate. Lokhemat is another accompaniment to coffee, which are balls of flour and yeast flavoured with cardamom and deep fried until golden then served with a sweet lime and cardamom syrup. The sweetness of this dish often counteracts the bitterness of the kahwa.

More substantial meals often have rice as the main ingredient, together with cooked meats. The main daily meal is usually eaten at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. Maqbous is a rice dish, tinged yellow with saffron and cooked over a spicy red or white meat. Aursia is a festival meal, served during celebrations, which consists of mashed rice flavoured with spices. Another popular festival meal is shuwa, which is meat cooked very slowly (sometimes for up to two days) in an underground clay oven. The meat becomes extremely tender and it is impregnated with spices and herbs before cooking to give it a very distinct taste. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the kingfish is a popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal comprising whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice. The rukhal bread is a thin, round bread originally baked over a fire made from palm leaves. It is eaten at any meal, typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry for dinner.

Traditional Omani Food

It is fairly simple, but by using various marinades and impregnating meat with spices, the result is a mouth-watering concoction which stimulates the tastebuds. Chicken, fish and mutton are regularly used in dishes. A favourite drink is laban, a salty buttermilk. Yoghurt drinks, flavoured with cardamom and pistachio nuts are also very popular.

Although spices, herbs, onion, garlic and lime are liberally used in traditional Omani cuisine, unlike similar Asian food, it is not hot. Omani cuisine is also distinct from the indigenous foods of other Gulf states and even varies within the Sultanate's different regions. The differences between some of the dishes prepared in Salalah, in the south, and those prepared in Muscat, in the north, are so market that it is difficult to find anything common between them. However, one delight that remains a symbol of Omani hospitality throughout the country are the ubiquitous dates, served with khawa, or Omani coffee. Khawa is prepared from freshly roasted ground coffee mixed with cardamom powder.

Special dishes are prepared for festive occasions. The Islamic world celebrates two main religious festivals - Eid Al Fitr and Eid Al Adha. Eid Al Fitr is celebrated following the Holy Month of Ramadan when people complete their obligatory fasting for 30 days. Eid Al Adha is celebrated on completing the Haj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, commemorating the sacrifice of Abraham. Dishes prepared during Ramadan are very seldom cooked on other occasions.

Food cooked on important occasions, such as Eid, is of an infinite variety. Omanis across the country serve an array of dishes. In Dhofar and Wusta, the festivities start with ruz al mudhroub, a dish made of cooked rice and served with fried fish, and maqdeed, special dried meat. In Muscat, Al Batinah, Dahira and Sharqiya regions, muqalab, a dish of tripe and pluck cooked with crushed or ground spices (cinnamon, cardamom, clove, back pepper, ginger, garlic and nutmeg), dominates the menu. Other dishes served during Eid festivities include arsia, a dish of lamb meat cooked with rice, and mishkak, skewered meat grilled on charcoal.

Lunch on the first day of Eid is usually harees, which is made from wheat mixed with meat. Lunch on the second day is mishkak, while on the third and last day, shuwa forms the whole day's meal.
However, it is during Ramadan that one can experience Omani food at its best and two of the most popular traditional dishes served at Iftar, the breaking of the fast include sakhana, a thick, sweet soup made of wheat, date, molasses and milk and fatta, a meat and vegetable dish, mixed with khubz rakhal, thin Omani bread, made out of unleavened dough.

Shuwa is a typically Omani delicacy prepared only on very special occasions. Whole villages participate in the cooking of the dish which consists of a whole cow or goat roasted for up to two days in an special oven prepared in a pit dug in the ground.
 

The method of preparing shuwa is elaborate. The meat is marinated with red pepper, turmeric, coriander, cumin, cardamom, garlic and vinegar and then wrapped in sacks made of dry banana or palm leaves. These sacks are then thrown into the smoldering oven, which is covered with a lid and sealed so that no smoke escapes. In some villages, the meat is cooked for 24 hours while in others it is believed that meat tastes better after 48 hours.

Everyday Omani cuisine includes a wide variety of soups - vegetable, lentil, lamb and chicken. Salads are also popular and are usually based around fresh vegetables, smoked eggplant, tuna fish, dried fish or watercress. Main course dishes are extensive and range from marak, a vegetable curry, to assorted kebabs, barbecued, grilled and curried meat, chicken and fish dishes.

Rice is used widely and is served in a variety of ways, from steamed to elaborate concoctions bursting with meat and vegetables. Breads rage from the plain to those flavoured with dates, sesame, thyme and garlic. For desert, Omani halwa, or sweatmeat, is a traditional favourite.

Folk Songs and Dances

Each region of Oman has its own songs and dances unique to the area. During festivals and ceremonies, these are performed for the appropriate occasion. In March 2001, the Omani Song Festival will be held. The competition is being run by the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture and the winner will have the opportunity to have an album made of his songs.

In the Sharqiya region, there are three main types of songs pertaining to the different environments in the area. These songs fall into the following categories: of the sea; of the desert; and of the urban areas. The sea songs reflect sailors' duties when preparing the ship to sail; during the voyage; and upon their return. There are eight types of sea songs such as Shillat al Hamool (The Song of the Porters) which is performed when loading goods onto the ship while they pray to God to keep them safe during their journey. Another type is the Naza Al Sharaa (Raising the Sails): each sail has its own song which differs in speed and text.

The Hambal is a singing march performed by sailors on their way to the Razha (see below).  There are two drummers, leading the procession, who turn to face the marching participants and walk backwards, encouraging them to show their bravery and courage.

The desert songs often praise the sturdiness of the camel. The Al Taghrud is sung while riding the camels, which encourages both the animal and its rider. It is a group song with a fixed chant which does not change from place to place. The Al Taariq Bedouin song is sung either atop the camel or seated on the ground. Two singers perform it in alternate verses. This song praises the she-camel and her merits and reflects the slower pace of the camel as opposed to the Taghrud which mimics the camel when it is travelling at speed.

The Razha is a dance which is characterised by the sword and poetry exchange. It is performed in most areas of the Sultanate. The men participating in the dance must leap into the air, carrying a heavy sword. Upon landing, they must not falter. The men will also throw the sword into the air and catch it as it comes down; a show of strength and prowess. Years ago, the Razha was used as a way to express the needs of the people in the tribe and also to announce war, victory, muster troops or mediate between warring factions. The Razha al Kabira (the Razha of adults) was once a dance of war. Today it is used as a welcome and celebration to His Majesty Sultan Qaboos. It has three slow rhythms which the participants match in their movements. Upon the beating of the drum, the men perform their sword displays, the aim of which is to hit your opponent on the left thumb. If no side is a clear winner, then an elder of the tribe cuts the air between them, terminating the fight.

The Musandam region has very different songs to the rest of the districts in Oman. The Al Ruwah is unique to the Bedouins who live in the mountains there and involves 8 - 10 drummers who move forward and backwards and then in a circle. It has different verses pertaining to different times of the day. The first is the Sirah which is performed in the morning; the Saadar is performed mid-morning; the Rawah at noon; and the Siria in the evening. This song is heard mainly at weddings, religious festivals and on official holidays. The Al Mawlid is a song of celebration performed on the Prophet's birthday, and also at weddings, moving to a new house or at the curing of the sick. This dance has a leader (khalifa) a second in command (shawwush) and a reciter (qara). The khalifa's succession is hereditary and the qara is a man of science or a scholar. The Al Dan song and dance involves two rows of participants who stand parallel to each other. A number of drummers approach the rows, until a dancer comes out from one of the rows to perform solo. The drummers then beat their drums, chasing him through the dance until he returns to his original position. A stipulation of performing the Dan is that the men must all go barefoot. Anyone found wearing sandals is punished with a fine.

In the Dhofar region, the Bar'aa is performed as a celebration of youth by two dancers, each holding a dagger in his right hand and his shal, fixed at the waist, in his left hand. The characteristic movement of the Bar'aa is a powerful one-footed leap into the air. The two dancers move in a synchronised series of steps, advancing and retreating while they both make full circles. At a particular moment, both dancers bow down before the musicians to allow the soloists to come forward and sing.

The Raqs al Nisaa is the Women's Dance, which is one of the most frequently performed dances in that region. The women move amongst the seated participants, bedecked in gold and holding their veils while making small, measured steps. Two dancers perform at a time, until they have circled the area and then they sit down to allow the next pair to continue.

The Al Wailah is a dance performed by women in the wilayat of Ibri in the Dhahira region. The women form into groups, each woman placing her right hand on her neighbour's shoulders and the groups move around in unison. At the start, each woman shakes a silver rattle, which she holds in her free hand, to emphasise the simple rhythm. When the leader of the group gives her rattle a long shake, the women exchange places and form circles. The dancing is accompanied by singing and drumming.

The Taymina is a traditional song of the Dakhliyah region which is sung when a child learns the Quran by heart. The children of the local school gather in a procession behind the teacher of the Quran, who reads a passage of a religious nature. At the end of each verse the children reply with, "Amin", in a unified voice.

Oman has a surprisingly varied wildlife, both on land and in the surrounding waters. Strict laws have been established to ban hunting as a number of indigenous animals have now become endangered, such as the Arabian leopard and the Arabian Oryx. Nature reserves have been set up throughout the Sultanate to protect the natural habitats of mammals such as the leopard, Oryx, gazelle, taher, ibex, desert foxes and wild cats.

The warm waters are home to 22 species of whale and dolphin. Oman is a member of the International Whaling Commission and follows the Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) guidelines in preventing the trade of endangered animals. Turtles are attracted to Oman's shores and turtle breeding reserves are located at Ras al-Jinz and the Dimaaniyat Islands. Oman has a profusion of exotic marine life and some of the best dive sites in the world. In particular, the Hallaniyat Islands and the Dimaaniyat Islands offer chances to see beautifully coloured tropical fish and unusual hard and soft corals.

The al-Saleel park is a nature reserve located in the town of al-Kamil wal-Wafi, in the Interior of Oman, and was established to protect gazelles and plantations of Samr and Ghaf trees (Acacia tortilis and Cineraria). The Jiddat al-Harasis Reserve is home to the Arabian Oryx and the area is listed on the World Natural and Cultural Heritage register by UNESCO.

Approximately 400 birds have been recorded in Oman during the seasons. Because it is located at the hub of three different geographical land masses, Oman is host to many foreign species, such as the Golden Oriole, Nightjar and White Stork. In the breeding season, public entry is prohibited to the Dimaaniyat Islands, where there is a bird sanctuary. During September to November, many eagles migrate to Oman, such as the Imperial Eagle and the Greater Spotted Eagle.

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Muscat, Oman: An Undiscovered Middle Eastern Treasure     By Linzi Hill
Photos by Sue Hutton

We were beginning our descent into Seeb International Airport, Muscat. At this point deciding I would have another flick through my guide book, I discovered a whole paragraph dedicated to the hassle of getting a tourist visa in Oman, advising visitors to expect to wait up to four hours. Not what I wanted to hear and I weighed up in my mind whether to break the news to my husband.

As the doors were opened, 108 degrees Farenheit (42 degrees Centigrade) hit us and it was only 7 am! What chance did we have in the midday sun? We began to realise why we had got such a good deal, clearly no one travelled to Oman in June.

No Problem!

By 7:45 we had made it to the hotel. We simply couldn’t believe our luck, straight through arrivals, visas no problems and a taxi driver who understood where we wanted to go who corrected our pronunciation. Apparently Chedi doesn’t rhyme with Jedi!

Despite having only driven from the airport, I had fallen in love with Muscat. The sky was the most brilliant blue and all of the buildings in a very traditional style sparkling white in the relentless sunshine. It was exactly what I had imagined.

The hotel staff were so pleased to see us simply because we were English – not something you find in many countries of the world and we were quickly led through to the lobby with it’s enormous tented roof and a seating area in the centre the size of a small football pitch piled high with cushions in vivid reds and oranges. I felt like I was part of a fairy tale. How would we ever explain this to anyone?

A local delicacy is a mixture of orange juice and mint and sitting on the Arabian Nights bed with an ice cold drink and an icy cold towel, England had never seemed so far away. This was pure bliss.

Making Plans

Laying on the deserted beach just a couple of hours later we made our plans, a city tour, a dune safari in the desert, a visit to the Grand Mosque and of course we must check out the local Souq or market.

One lazy day on the beach was all we had time for and so the following morning when the unfamiliar alarm sounded at 7 am to cries of “I thought this was supposed to be a holiday” we were ready to start to explore.

Muscat is wedged between the Arabian Gulf and the mountains so it seems no matter where you are the scenery is spectacular. The city is a sprawling mass and walking around to see the sites would be almost impossible. Mutrah has the main sights, but even they are spread out over a few miles. Although the city is modern, there are no high-rise blocks and even new buildings are required to be built in traditional Arabic style. Most roads don’t have names so people use landmarks to get around.

Awesome Colors

Our first stop was “The Grand Mosque of Sultan Qaboos” where in 104 defrees F (40 degrees C) I was required to cover my head with a sarong and tie another one around my neck. Walking into the prayer hall, I was in awe of the colors and the thousands of lights. So much so that when given the chance to ask questions all I could think of was, “Do the lights ever go out?” to which I was told about the computer which can identify which bulb has gone.

Once the tour was over we were allowed to have a look round on our own so long as we didn’t cross the carpet. I felt strange being in such a place. It was hard to imagine this room filled with the 6000 men it could hold for prayer and odd to think the whole thing was televised every Friday to allow the women to stay at home.

It’s trips like these that brings the cliché “It’s a different world” really into its own. Fridays at home are a day for trying to finish work early and planning for the weekend.

Although the Grand Mosque impressed me in a way I didn’t think possible I was relived to be outside the gates to remove my head coverings. I’d never felt so incredibly conscious of my every move in the mosque, being careful not to let my coverings slip, and believe me keeping your head covered in over 104 degrees is uncomfortable.

The City Center

We went back to meet our guide, and in the sheer relief of the air-conditioned 4x4 we drove back on onto the highway, a feature in itself with immaculate grass verges and plants, and headed into the walled city center. The azure Arabian Gulf in constant view we arrived in under half an hour, first stop the port and local fish market (open from sunrise till 10 am) where we saw some amazing huge and unrecognizable fish.

Despite not buying any fish, I was determined that we would have some souvenirs to bring home, so we headed back up Mutrah’s main street to the famous Mutrah Souq, the oldest market in the capital.

As we entered the Souk I was beginning to wonder if we were in the wrong place. This certainly didn’t live up to the markets I had visited in other countries. But as we walked deeper, the shops changed and ahead of us was the gold Souk with beautiful Omani jewels in every window.

My husband had slowed down a little at this point and I wondered whether he had forgotten it was my birthday. Maybe he was just remembering my knack of taking him into a jewellers in every country we visit. Sure enough, an hour and a lot of haggling over a couple of dollars later, we left with a golden souvenir of Oman.

The Sultan's Palace

A little further along the waterfront we were standing in front of His Majesty the Sultan’s Palace, probably the most unimpressive building we encountered, I was expecting something regal and maybe a bit glitzy but I couldn’t have been more wrong.

Flanked on both sides by now unused forts (Al-Jalali and Al-Mirani) built in the 1500’s the view was again amazing and you could certainly appreciate how well protected the Sultan would be here. I mentioned my thoughts to our guide who assured my Sultan Quaboos had many homes with his main palace being South of the country in Salalah.

Before we left the walled city our guide insisted on taking us to the Al Burstan Palace Hotel “just to have a look,” an amazing hotel billed as the top place to stay, buzzing with every nationality. A stunning location with the most fantastic view, the gulf to the front and the mountains to the rear, another fantastic photo opportunity.

A White-Knuckle Dune Safari

With no time for relaxing the following morning saw us again meeting our guide in the lobby at 7 am ready to head to the desert for a 4x4 dune safari and then a visit to a wadi (a dried out river bed to you and me). There were six of us today in three vehicles. We drove for about an hour having a short break at a camel stud.

We took the camera out for the first shots of the day but the heat was too much for it, either that or we’d let it get too cold with the essential air conditioning in our room. Panic set in.

I love to travel but my husband just likes to take pictures. Asking our guide if we could buy a disposable camera anywhere (sacrilege when you usually use a Nikon with half a dozen different lenses!) we were taken to a tiny little shop and, without a common language, managed to convey that we needed a camera - $5 later we had a point and shoot camera and we were heading towards the desert.

As we turned off the main road into the desert the heat just seemed to intensify. We made a brief stop to photograph some camels while the drivers let their tires down to allow them to cope with the sand dunes we’d soon be bouncing over.

From the moment we turned off the road I was fascinated how the drivers knew where to go. It all looked the same to me. For about an hour and a half we carried on across the dunes and every time we reached the top of the dune I started to feel ill. I think it was sitting in the back and not being able to see when we would tip over the edge.

Going down backwards was the final straw and I was relieved when we could see the road in the distance. I never imagined that dune safaris would come in the category of white knuckle!

Our next turn off the main road took us into the wadi. Looking around at the dried out river bed with the sun beating down it was so hard to imagine there ever being any water in it. As we got deeper there were more plants and we reached a tropical oasis where we got out to walk. The heat was amazing with no shelter from the relentless sun. We found a small pool of water and within a couple of minutes all of us were paddling.

Dining Dos and Don'ts

Moving on, “a traditional Omani restaurant” they told us and so it was time to check out the guide book or the rule book as it was beginning to be known. We knew that eating with your left hand was rude (right hand for food and left hand for other things!).

We arrived at the restaurant; shoes off and were shown into a room with cushions all around the edge. We sat down on the floor and drinks were ordered. Iit was soft drinks all round – alcohol is not sold outside of the major hotels. The food arrived. Steaming platters of rice and then an amazing selection of meats each cooked in a different way.

My favourite was one which was cooked in a hole in the ground. The only problem was that nobody would tell me what sort of meat it was. You could tell the visitors: we were the ones using cutlery.

Our guides were just shovelling food into their mouths, only using their right hands of course. Omani’s do not eat desserts but the meal ended with some amazingly strong Arabic coffee and dates.

All too soon it was time to pack our bags and the four-foot high coffee pot we had bought, convinced it would fit in our luggage. Heading back to the airport, unusually for us, we both agreed that although we had without a doubt seen the highlights of Muscat in just a few days we wanted to explore more of Oman and would definitely be back in the future.

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Oman is a blend of the new and the old. This is true not just of the city, its architecture, its attitude and customs but also of its shopping. Here you will find a mix of the snazziest shopping malls and the wonderfully quaint traditional markets or "Souqs". Muttrah Souq In the heart of the city, a tall arch frames the entrance to the entrance of Muttrah Souq, the oldest and by far the most well known in Oman. Here the old and the new mingle and the present revisits the past as visitors throng its quaint and charming interiors. The Souq is a shoppers' delight offering anything from wallets for R.O. 1 to antique khanjars for R.O. 1000. Frankincense, silverware, antiques and garments are most sought after items. The Souq retains much of its old world charm with row upon row of matchbox size shops, set in winding tiny lanes under a palm-frond canopied roof. Here, Bedouin women in traditional dress sell the fragrant aromas known as "Bukhoor," combining various raw materials such as sandalwood, frankinscense and natural oils. You can purchase souvenirs like Khanjars and coffee pots, Bedouin jewelry, clothing (dishdashas, kummas (caps), massar (turban) and khanjar for the men; dishdashas, surwal (trousers), lihaff (shawl) for the women). The Souq is best enjoyed when you can take your time to take in all the sights and sounds. It is least crowded in the mornings and late afternoon and busiest in the evening hours after 6 pm. You will find that types of stores tend to cluster together. Therefore you will find all the gold souqs in one area, antiquities in another, textiles in yet another, and so on. The prices for most items are negotiable and haggling is a long standing tradition. As a rule of thumb, however, it is not necessary to haggle for anything less than one rial. Even if you don't buy anything, the souq is well worth a visit to see the lifestyle of a bygone time. Modern replica Souqs In the Sabco Centre mall and The Capital Commercial Centre you can find upscale replicas of the traditional souq. Here, , merchandise is a combination of authentic artifacts, cheap reproductions (kitsch) and trendy items usually reserved for the malls (such as perfume, watches and knick-knacks. Even here do not hesitate to negotiate on prices. Nizwa Souq Nizwa Souq is about a two-hour drive from Muscat. Here outside the renovated fort stands the central market. Here you can purchase antiquities, pottery and silver jewellery. Nizwa silver craft is considered to be the best in the country. As always you can haggle for your purchase and you may be surprised at the deals you can find. On any day of the week you can experience the usual hustle-bustle of the traditional markets selling fruits and vegetables, spices, meat and fish. But on fridays everyone in the town gathers early in the morning at the goat walk at the far end of the Souq to purchase livestock from the local farmers. Cows goats and sheep are offered for inspection and purchase. The scene is invariably crowded and busy and provides travelers with an excellent opportunity to observe local customs. Sinaw Souq Set between the Wahibah Sands and the edge of the Empty Quarter, Sinaw surprisingly show a lot of activity for an outpost town. Because here is where the Bedouins come to do business. In the heart of the city in the square behind the green doors, all the hustly and bustle of a Middle Eastern market are at its finest. It is very easy to get caught up in the spirit. Just watch yourself, though. You might find yourself going home with a newly purchased racing camel. Ibra Wednesday Souq Ladies, here is your chance to prove your shopping mettle at the Wednesday Soup in Ibra. Why? Because it's an all-women affair. No men allowed. So ditch your significant other and come to Ibra. Handicrafts, utensils and textiles are the main features here. Al Hafah Souq (Salalah) Nestled in the coconut groves on Salalah's south side is a cozy souq in the Al Hafah section of town. Here are textile shops, gold and silver souqs and probably best of all, perfumeries where you can find frankincense, and bokhur that will send your olfactory senses sailing. All the accountrements are available as well-burners and charcoal. There are several local cafe's serving up the best in local snacks and tidbits-mishkak, hummus, etc.

Muttrah - Bringing old-world charm into today's shopping Oman’s ancient trading port Muttrah has many attractions for the modern-day visitor. There is Muttrah Fort, one of the 13 forts dotting the area.

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Introduction
The Sultanate of Oman lies at the eastern extremity of the Arabian Peninsula, between the Republic of Yemen in the south, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates to the west. To the north, the Governorate of Musandam, overlooking the Strait of Hormuz, is separated from the remainder of Oman by some 95 km of United Arab Emirates territory. The Tropic of Cancer passes through Oman just south of the capital, Muscat. The total land area is 309,500 sq km, with a coastline of 1,700 km.

Geology and Topography
The north of Oman is dominated by the Hajar Range, a chain of rugged limestone and dolomite mountains, stretching from Musandam to Sur and rising to just over 3,000m at the highest point of the Jebel al Akhdhar. They are flanked by lower mountains of ophiolite, an igneous rock originating from upheavals of oceanic crust. Along the north-east of the range is the alluvial plain of the Batinah region, whilst to the west and south gravel plains stretch to the southern governorate of Dhofar. These plains cover some 80% of the surface of Oman and border the Arabian Sea. In the west the extensive sand dunes of the Rub' al Khali stretch beyond the border with Saudi Arabia. The separate Sharqiyah Sands, covering some 9,300 sq km, lie to the east, near the southern extemity of the Hajar range. In the Governorate of Dhofar the gravel plains rise southwards to the escarpment of the Dhofar mountains, reaching 1,800 m and comprising mainly tertiary rocks, including calcareous shale, limestone, and massive gypsum.

Climate
With the exception of the mountain regions, the climate is hot and dry, with annual rainfall less than 100 mm. The Hajar range attracts higher but sporadic rainfall, more often in the winter months, but also from occasional thunderstorms in the summer. The climate of Dhofar is dominated by the south-west monsoon, which brings dense mists and some rain to the escarpment and the Salalah plain during the months of July, August and September, resulting in a belt of grass and woodland in the mountain region, densest on the steep slopes facing south to the Arabian Sea. The remainder of the country is arid with sporadic winter rain and occasional thunderstorms in the summer. Rainfall is higher in the Hajar range, bringing more vegetation, though limited by lack of soil in the rugged terrain. Fog moisture, especially in the spring and autumn, benefits the vegetation of the central plains of the Jiddat al Harasis. The mean annual rainfall over most of the country is less than 100 mm.

Vegetation
The flora of the Sultanate reflects the influence of that of Iran in the north, with an increasing influence of African species from the Eastern Hajar mountains southwards to Dhofar. Of approximately 1,200 species found in Oman, some 87 are endemic or near-endemic – occurring only in Oman or shared with its immediate neighbours and nowhere else in the world. Of these, 75 are endemic to Dhofar, mainly found in the mountains within the monsoon belt.

Mammals
Some 86 mammal species or sub-species occur in Oman. Of the regionally endemic large mammals, the Arabian tahr - Wa'al al Arabi (Hemitragus jayakari), classified as Endangered, occurs only in the northern mountains including those of the UAE. The Critically Endangered Arabian leopard (Panthera pardus nimr), a regionally endemic subspecies, occurs in the Dhofar mountains.

Birds
Over 480 species have been recorded in Oman, the majority being migrants travelling seasonally between northern Asia some as far north as the Arctic, and Africa. Around 100 species are breeding residents.

Other Terrestrial Fauna
Many species of reptiles, arthropods, amphibians, insects and lower order fauna occur throughout Oman. A visit to the Oman Natural History Museum at the Ministry of Heritage and Culture is strongly recommended for a closer look at the full range of Oman's biological diversity.

The Landscape
Oman's natural and cultural landscapes are famous for their astonishing beauty, from dramatic high peaks and canyons, ancient oasis settlements with their traditional forts and houses, dense monsoon forests, barren gravel wildernesses, sand seas furrowed by high dunes, to coastal cliffs and fiords. To geologists they tell the story of millions of years of Oman's history because, unlike temperate countries where rock formations are mostly covered by soil and vegetation, the geology of Oman is visible for all to see. In today's crowded industrial world, wildernesses have a special appeal to the international tourist, many of whom wish to go to places where they will not be among crowds of other tourists: Oman is able to offer this experience as well as the more conventional types of holiday.

The landscape is the foundation of responsible tourism, a sustainable way to support the economy of rural areas, through employment. It contains all Oman's terrestrial species, so care of the landscape helps to protect what is within it. Aside from tourism, a beautiful landscape sustains the quality of life for all those who live and work within it, encouraging their sense of ownership and pride.

Oman is a beautiful country, blessed with unique habitats and landscapes, ranging from pristine beaches and coral reefs to high mountains and breathtaking desert sands. The Environment Society of Oman (ESO) is a non-governmental society which aims to help conserve Oman's natural heritage and raise awareness about environmental issues.

The seas of the Sultanate of Oman occupy an isolated corner of the Indian Ocean, where some of the world’s most varied and biologically productive waters are found. In the Gulf of Oman and Arabian Sea, vast open-ocean plains, canyons and trenches of extreme depth abruptly meet the coastline forming underwater cliffs several kilometers high. This contrasts with the gently sloping continental shelf of the Arabian Gulf and northern Gulf of Oman and has resulted in a great diversity of marine habitats.

Most of Oman’s waters lie within the tropics, but they nevertheless exhibit among the greatest seasonal variability found in any of the world’s oceans. The two main climatic influences are the winter and summer monsoons. The winter monsoon is characterized by a relatively gentle and variable, dry northeast wind, known locally as ‘Shamal’. This wind occurs between November and April, leading to modest increases in productivity and a current that flows to the southwest. The vigorous summer monsoon, or ‘Kharif’, forcefully reverses this circulation pattern and has a dramatic effect on the Sultanate’s seas. Cold, nutrient-rich waters well up in the Arabian Sea, and once at the surface, sunlight triggers phytoplankton blooms that persist for three or four months of the year and fuel the region’s primary productivity.

Musandam Region
The ragged coastline of the Musandam region, includes spectacular cliffs that plunge into the sea along fjiord-like inlets and promontories that characterize the region’s coast. The shelter afforded by the many khayran, harbour some of the most well-developed corals reefs in the country, whilst the cliffs themselves provide a roosting place for seabirds. Offshore, the seabed slopes gently southwards into the Gulf of Oman.

Al Batinah
The low-energy shoreline of the Batinah region in the Gulf of Oman, extends seaward as a wide continental shelf, that is generally desert-like and relatively featureless. A string of islands breaks the monotony; Oman’s only marine protected area, the Daymaniyat Islands Nature Reserve. Coral reefs thrive in clear waters and support a fantastic range of associated reef life, from sea anemones to whale sharks. The islands are also home to internationally important nesting seabirds and the critically endangered hawksbill turtle.

Muscat Region
The long-sweeping beach of the Batinah gives way to the rocky shores of Muscat, studded with coral reefs along a shoreline carved from limestone. Once used by ancient seafarers, the many bays, inlets and coves continue to shelter fishermen and attract tourists with their scenic splendour and promise of diverse and exciting marine life. Dolphins and whales are frequently seen in offshore waters that rapidly descend to depths of over 3,000 metres.

Ash-Sharqiyah
Rocky coastline extends southwards throughout much of the Sharqiyah region, reaching the easternmost tip of Arabia at the famous beaches of Ras al Hadd. Green turtles nest here throughout the year in numbers that probably exceed those of any other turtle rookery in the Indian Ocean. The Wahiba Sands meet the shoreline south of Ras al Hadd, separating it from Oman’s other major turtle nesting site; the island of Masirah. All four of Oman’s nesting turtles find space to nest here, but the majority are loggerhead turtles. As many as 30,000 females have been estimated to congregate here to nest between the months of March and August, forming possibly the largest nesting population in the world.

Al Wusta
Intense productivity in the waters of the Al Wusta region make the generally shallow seas here almost permanently green in colour. The vast swarms of phytoplankton attract a wealth of fish life, many of which apparently spawn here. Coastal whales, such as humpback and Bryde’s whales are attracted to this area and seabirds feed in their thousands. Onshore, still more birds, possibly over a million each year, dot the white sandy beaches and salt flats or wade in the shallows at Barr al Hikman, many of them passing through on migration. Barr al Hikman is also special for another reason. A coral reef, perhaps thirty square kilometers in extent, lies in shallow waters off the south coast of the area and is uniquely made from a single coral species, the Oman cabbage coral.

Dhofar
Dhofar’s spectacular coasts and seas differ markedly from those further north in the country. Like Musandam, cliff’s plummet into the sea from coastal escarpments, whilst elsewhere khayran and sweeping beaches are reminiscent of Batinah or Muscat shorelines. However, it is here that the ‘Kharif’ is centred, turning both the shores and the seas green as it fuels prolific primary productivity.
The kharif begins in May, when southwesterly winds race across the Arabian Sea, driving surface waters seaward. Cold, nutrient-rich waters well up and over the cliff edges, spawning a tremendous abundance of marine life. Kelp-like algae flourish and form acres of swaying fields of seaweed, growing side-by-side with corals; a phenomenon that can only be witnessed in this part of the world. Fish life is spectacularly abundant, attracting large marine predators, like sharks, dolphins and whales in high numbers. In undisturbed offshore areas, such as at the Halaaniyat Islands, pods of sperm whales may number over 50 individuals, whilst Arabian long-beaked common dolphins can school in their thousands.

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News

Al-Watan
Local News (Arabic)
Oman Arabic Daily
Oman News (in Arabic)
Oman News Agency (ONA)
Updated daily news in English and Arabic.
Oman Observer
Oman's largest circulated English Newspaper.
Times of Oman
National and Middle East news.
TV/Radio
Ministry of Information, Sultanate of Oman sites for TV and Radio
Site for TV, Radio and Radio FM in Arabic and English of Sultanate of Oman.

Arts & Culture

Museums in Oman
Information about the Oman Museum, National Museum, Omani - French Museum and some other Omani museums.

Traditional handicraft Oman
Ship building, pottery, jewellery and other traditional Omani crafts.

Education

Dhofar University
Official website of Dhofar University.
Nizwa University
Official website of University Of Nizwa.
Sohar University
Information about the first private university in the Sultanate of Oman.
Sultan Qaboos University - SQU
The first university in Oman, Muscat.
Oman Studies Centre
Documentation and Research on Oman and the Arabian Gulf.

Environment

Ministry of Regional Municipalities, Environment and Water Resources
The Sultanate is striving for the enhancement of protection of the environment and conservation of its natural resources through control of development projects and preservation of biodiversity and many protection projects such as mangrove cultivation project, wild trees growing project, gazelle tagging project, coastal management projects, preparation of Oman's national conservation strategy and restrictions to visit nature reserves and protection of the environment in general.

Environment Society of Oman
Official website of the Society for the education and the raise of awareness of environmental issues, site provides information about Oman's environment issues and projects.

Oman Environment
Nizwa.NET provides a collection of informative articles about the ecology of the country.

Additional Information on Oman

ArabNet: Oman
BBC Country Profile: Oman
Governments on the WWW: Oman
Open Directory Project: Oman
UT - MENIC: Countries: Oman
The Center for Middle Eastern Studies (University of Texas) on Oman.
Wikipedia: Oman
The World Factbook -- Oman