Introduction:
Marmas is the second largest indigenous minority group in Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Bangladesh. They live in the three hill districts of Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachhari. Some Marmas, however live in the coastal districts of Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali district. The Marmas claim themselves “Rakhine” and many consider them as a separate ethnic community. Some of the groups of Marmas called themselves as “Magh”. They are living both in the plain and hill areas.
Ethnically, Marmas are Mongoloid race and culturally, they are very close to the Rakhines in the state Arakan of Myanmar. Many consider that Marmas and their neighbours, Rakhines are in fact, the same tribe. The skull of Rakhines is round, their nose is flat, they have black hair, they are usually short in height, and their complexion is light brown. But the Marmas are relatively short and have prominent cheekbones. They have yellow complexion, black hairs, small eyes, and snub noses. Their community is headed by two Chief or King (Raja) called the “Bohmong Chief” and the “Mong Chief”. The Bohmong Chief is reside at Bandarban and the Mong Chief is reside at Ramgarh and in Khagrachari district. The Marma society is divided into several classes, each classes is named after the place from where it migrated, such as Maratha, Ragratha, Ramratha and so on. Chiefs or Raja, Buddhist monks or Phongyee, Headmen and Matbars occupy prestigious positions in the Marma social life. The material culture of the Marma society includes many basic tools and weapons of primitive societies.
In 16th century the Kingdom of Bohmong and Mong was established by themselves in the Bengal. So, from the first Bohmong Chief named Raja Mongchapai to 14th Bohomong Chief, Raja Maung Shwe Prue Chowdhury, they have always been performing the social, administrative and judicial functions in the traditional manner. However, due to political changes in the sub-continent they have gradually adopted changed methods in their administrative systems.
Origin:
The word “Marma” originates from the Burmese word “Myanma”, which means “Burmese Nationals”and is pronounced as “Marma”by the people of the CHT. In other explanation the word “Marma” is derived from the Burmese word “Mraima” which means “Being Born”. Hence, the predecessors of the Marma tribes were from Burma and as such, they came to be known as “Marma” or “Mraima”.
The Marmas of CHT were migrated from ancient Burma (Myanmar). The original and ancestral land of the Marma tribe was in the ancient Pegu city of Myanmar. The people of Pegu were known as “Talaing or Tai Luang” meaning “Greater Tai”, a branch of the Great Tai race, which, according to some historians, lived in southern and central China as early as 2200 BC. Some researchers opine that the Buddhists of Arakan now known as Marmas and Maghs are the same group of people. The Marma people of CHT, however, do not like to identify themselves with Maghs. They consider that Maghs were originally pirates and that Marmas, far from being pirates, hated this occupation.
In 1599, the city of Pegu was invaded by Mahappinnagi, the brave Army Commander of the King of Arakan. They captured whole region and became under the control of Arakan Kingdom. During the Arakanese rule (1459-1666), there might have developed some settlements in south and south-eastern parts of Bengal (present Bangladesh), but these are not historically traceable. In 1614, the most population including other ethnic tribe from Pegu city came and had settled in the Arakan State of Myanmar as well as in the Chittagong district and CHT, which was then almost unpopulated. There is a history of the Marma King's rule in Chittagong district and CHT. In the 16th century they came in CHT during the reign of Bohmong King name Raja Hari Prue. At that time the Arakan King attacked Chittagong, and established it as his capital. The Arakan King sent two troops to Chittagong bestowing the title of Bohmong and Mong to the troop leaders to fight against the Mughals. These troops did not go back and eventually settled in the Chittagong and hill tract areas. The Bohmong leader came settled at Bandarban and the Mong leader entered Khagrachari and Ramgarh with his groups respectively. Since than the two leaders recognised themselves as Raja or Chief or King in their own troop or group. In the eighteenth century, many Marma people also migrated from Arakan because of political turmoil and they gradually settled in different areas of CHT, Chittagon and Patuakhai.
From other historical fact that the main Marma settlements in Bangladesh grew up with the fall of the independent Kingdom of Arakan to Burma in 1784. After the annexation, King Bodawpaya (1782-1819) of Burma let loose a reign of terror. This resulted in the migration of two-thirds of its population to south-eastern part of Bengal. The British government took measures for their rehabilitation. Captain H. Cox, a former British navy officer in Burma, was appointed as the superintendent of the Marma settlements. Cox's Bazar, now a sea resort of Bangladesh, was named after him. The grant of asylum and the depredations of Mama resulted in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824-25, in which Burma was defeated and Arakan and Tenassarim were annexed to the British dominion by the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826. As a result, the refugees from Arakan got a permanent foothold in the southern areas of Chittagong district. The second wave of Marma migration started from Arakan through the Matamuhuri Valley and in course of time, they spread over Bandarban. Marma call this area Bohmong Thoung ie, the residence of the Bohmong Chief. The third group entered Khagrachari from Sitakunda region and built up their permanent abode at Ramgarh. They claim to be known as “Plaung Tha” and their residence as “Plaung Thoung” meaning the abode of the “Plaung Thoung clan”. The fourth group crossing the bay of Bengal reached southern part of Greater Patuakhali (now divided into two districts, Patuakhali and Barguna) and settled down there as Rangabali, Bara Baizdiya and Aila were the principal Marma settlements.
Population:
With the growth of population they spread over throughout the region. Marmas call CHT as “Awazonway”, meaning “Offshore Island”. The geographical distribution of Marma population is shown in the table below.
Table Distribution of Marma populations:
Districts 1961 1981 1991
Bandarban 79,518 59,288
Khagrachari 39,692 42,178
Rangamati 31,169 40,868
Cox’s Bazar NA 3,011
Greater Patuakhali 16,394 3,668 3,662
Total 157, 301
Source: Bangladesh Population Census Report 1991 (District Reports)
The Magh population as a whole declined over the years, particularly in the districts of Bandarban Chittagong and Patuakhali. During the period of tribal unrest (1974-1997) in the CHT many tribal people, including some Marmas, left Bangladesh and took shelter in the north-eastern state of India, such as Tripura, Assam, Arunachal, etc. and also in Myanmar. A group of Marmas, migrated to Arakan state of Myanmar from Bandarban district, the southern region of CHT. After the CHT Treaty 1997, the situation improved and the migration of Marmas is less discernible. In Patuakhali many Marma villages became deserted due to cyclones and tidal bores. Due to communal tension and social unrest many Marmas migrated to Tripura state of India.
It is recorded that in 1872, there were 4,049 Marmas in the Patuakhali region and later the number increased to 16,394 in 1951, but reduced to 3,713 in 1979. In 1991 census recorded the number of Marma population in Bangladesh at about 157,301. More than eighty per cent of them lived in Ramu, Cox's Bazar, Bandarban, Manikchari, Ramgardh and Teknaf areas.
Social Administration:
The traditional political administrative system in the Marma community is a three-tier one. Village level administration is headed by a Karbari. The Mouza level is headed by a Headman and the Circle level is headed by the Circle chief called “Raja”. The main responsibilities of the village Karbari, the Headman and the Raja are collection of jhum tax. In addition, each is entrusted with various socio-cultural responsibilities including mitigation of disputes, pronouncing judgements, and maintaining law and order at their respective levels of administration.
Family:
The nuclear family is predominant in the Marma community. Although the husband is the head of the household, the wife also has a significant role in the family. The social structure of Marmas is patriarchal. The eldest male member is the supreme head of the family. Yet a woman holds an honourable position in the Marma society. In spite of the patrimonial dominance, matrimonial practices are not altogether absent in the society. A Marma woman enjoys more freedom as regards marriage, divorce and ownership over the property. Women have a prestigious position in society and take equal part in all activities like agriculture, business and cottage industry.
Property:
Kinship ties are quite strong in the Marma society. Such ties are both affinity and consanguineous. The property inheritance, in general, follows the old Burmese line of inheritance called “Thamohada”. Both sons and daughters inherit parental properties. The “Auroth”(most favourite) child gets the ownership of the house and has to take care of the parents. In recent times, however, inheritance of landed property follows a rule according to which the property is distributed in the ratio of 2:1 between sons and daughters.
Though the father is the formal head of the family, both male and female members have equal rights. Sons and daughters inherit parental property in equal proportion.
Lifestyle:
Marmas build their houses on high platform called “Machang”. The houses are rectangular in shape with oval roofing. The bamboo matting platform is raised six to eight feet above the ground and is supported by timber or bamboo posts. The walls are made of bamboo slate and the roof is covered with thatched grass. A ladder is attached between the platform and the ground for entrance and exit. A house is divided into several rooms. Generally speaking, the Marma houses are well-ventilated. Each house is fenced on all sides. Inside the fencing, there is a garden. In Bandarban, houses made of bamboo, cane and timber are visually crude, while the residential architecture at Cox's Bazar exhibits artistic shape and design. Every room of the house is a bed room-cum-store. The space underneath the Machang is used for various purposes such as keeping livestock, storing fuel wood, or accommodating hand looms for weaving. Some houses, however, are made of mud and built without Machangs.
Most Marmas possess good physique and prefer cleanliness. Usually, they take bath twice a day and drink boiled water. In the past, they depended on indigenous medicines made from certain kinds of plants and herbs. The system is popularly known as “Magha Shastriya Aushad” or “Marma Herbal Medicine”. But nowadays, modern medication system is gaining popularity and the younger section of the society prefers modern treatments and attends in the hospitals.
Livelihood:
Agricultural is the main occupation of Marmas. Jhum system of cultivation is their primary agricultural pursuit. In the early days the livelihood of the Marmas depended on “Jhum system of cultivation”. In this mode of cultivation, they first clear the forests along the hill slopes and then dry and burn them before cultivating the land. This has been the main source of their food and earning their livelihood.
They also supplement their food requirement by gathering tree leaves, roots, and tubers from hill forests. Small-scale homestead gardening is also common among them. Other important economic activities of Marmas include basketry, brewing and wage labour. Weaving is a very common activity of Marma women. Marmas were not market oriented in the past. Their economic activities and production system were geared to their subsistence. As the production from Jhum cultivation is declining they are now growing fruits and vegetables, and are doing poultry farming and cottage industries. The main profession of Marmas is farming. They also weave and make salt and molasses. Both males and females take part in agricultural work. But women take the leading role in livestock rearing and poultry.
Only recently have they become involved in trade and commerce, business and a few of them teach. Produces of the Marma people are sold mostly through middlemen. Some Marma families now operate small retail stores. Weaving and fish catching also support many of them. Businessmen, shopkeepers and service holders are rarely found in their society. Child labour is unknown, but Marma women are found working in the field and construction sites.
Language:
Marmas have their own dialect, which has close resemblance with Burmese and Arakanese. Their written characters is Burmese. Marma language belongs to the Burma-Arakan group within the broad classifications of Tibet-Burma languages. In recent times, Marmas in urban areas and nearby settlements speak the corrupt local language of Chittagonian language. Counting numerals, name of the days, months and years of Marmas are similar to those of the Burmese and Arakanese. They do not have in general any rich literature of their own. Riddles, proverbs and folk tales are familiar in their society.
Religion:
Like the Buddhists of South and South-east Asia, Marmas are Theravada Buddhists. Written in Pali, the Tripitaka is the sacred book of Marmas. In religious matters they have been divided in two groups: the Monastic Community and the Laity. The Buddhist monks maintain celibacy, wear yellow robes called “Civara” and live in the temple, while the Laity leads a family life with wife, children and relatives.
Marmas believe that their birth, death, reincarnation and all activities in life take place under the influence of a supernatural power, which they try to satisfy through their rites and rituals. Animism is also in practice among them, like other tribes and sub-tribes, believe in superstitions, magic and supernatural powers.
They perform with great devotion, all the important Buddhist religious festivals and also various rituals and worships to satisfy different gods. Dreams have a very strong influence in decision making in their everyday life. Marmas are the second major Buddhist groups after Chagmas stock in the CHT. The Buddhist monks play an important role in the society such as, education, marriage, birth and death.
In Thailand as in many other Buddhist countries it is quite common to see Buddhist monks with alms-pots in their hands coming out of the temples in a line early in the morning. They pass through the roads or the houses around the temples receiving food and other day-to-day essential things from the lay disciples who stand there waiting for the monks to pass by. But in the Buddhist majority places in the CHT, such as Bandarban, Rangamati and Khagrachari only on big religious festivals one can see such a scene. For example, on the occasions of Buddha Purnima, Kathin Chibar Dan, Maghi Purnima, Ashari Purinima and Marma New Year Eva, one sees the monks come out in a queue to receive alms from their disciples. The New Year Eva is called “Sundrey” is their greatest community festival and is observed for three days on the occasion of Chaitra Sankranti. Everybody takes part in this festival. Young boys and girls sing songs and perform dances in groups.
The Marma Buddhist monks with their alms-bowls go by the houses of their lay disciples on the occasion of the Kathin Chibar Dan and other religious festivals. On that situation the young children lying down their face on the ground. The monks in this ritualistic practice move forward crossing over the children one by one. It is believed that the children are blessed this way when the monks go past them over their bodies. In Myanmar also practice as same.
Education:
The Buddhist monk is called “Phongyee”, Temple is “Kyong” and the village is called “Roa” in Marma language. The Phongyee play an important role for the maintenance of traditional education system in the Marma society. The Phongyee give them both spiritual and formal education in the temple. From the child-hood Marma childred receive both religious and linguistic education from their religious teacher in the temple. As a result, compared to other religious groups, the literacy rate among Marmas is very high due to the existence of Phongyee and Buddhist temple in every villages and localities. Every member of the Marma society can read and speak the Burmese fluently. Yet the system is inadequate, for which many boys and girls are found studying in normal schools and colleges in and outside their locality.
Custom:
There are some special characteristics in the custom of naming the Marma children. The name of the first-born child either male or female begins with U or Oo, such as U Shwe Proue, U Mong Prue, U Mra Prue, Unu Prue, etc. If the child is the last one of the couple then sometime they use “Thui” at the end of the name, viz., Mong-Sa-Thui, Myang-Thui, etc. They collect these names from Buddhist monks.
Cultural Life:
The socio-cultural life of Marmas is imbued with new spirit and hopes and the phenomenon is articulated in many organisations founded by Marmas in different areas in Bangladesh. Some organisations are: Bangladesh Marma Welfare Association, Bangladesh Marma Association, Bangladesh Marma Sangha, Patuakhali Marma Bauddha Yuba Sangstha and Marma Bhikkhu Sangha and so on. The programmes of the organisations project their problems to the government and propagate inter alias, their culture at home and abroad. For this purpose, some journals and periodicals namely, Uccharan, Light of Awazonway appear occasionally under the editorship of young Marmas.
Because of the tribal unrest and isolated position of the Marma villages, the working conditions for non-government organisations had not been favourable in Marma areas, where however, some NGO's had limited activities in the past. Following the CHT Peace Accord in 1997, major NGO's such as “BRAC” and “Proshika” came up with initiatives to undertake activities in these areas. The Marma NGO is working with a view to materialising to development of education, cottage industry including weaving, in the Marma areas, development of cottage industry including weaving, loan distribution among poor Marma women and revival of Marma culture.
Festival:
Most festivals of Marmas are connected with the full moon of each month, which they call “Labray”, a Burmese word for full moon. To them the full moon is sacred and they believe that most religious events take place on the day following the night of the full moon. On this occasion, icons of Lord Buddha are worshipped with food, fruits and flowers and by lighting candles and incense sticks. The important full moons are “Kason” (in April), “Waso” (in June), “Thadingyut” (in September) and “Tabodwe”(in January). Marmas give alms to the poor, observe “Sila” (code of conduct or precept or morality) and “Samadhi or Bhavana” (meditation). Side by side with all these Buddhist practices, they worship trees and rivers. Water festival constitutes one of their popular enjoyment. Drama and dance called “Zatpwe” and “Yeinpwe” are popular entertainment. The former deals with the Buddhists lore and the life stories of ancient Buddhists kings, while the latter is equivalent to western ball dance. Due to decline in population, all these performances are rarely found in practice now. Among the Marmas musical instruments are “Saing-Waing” (circular big wooden drum), “Kye-Waing” (small wooden drum), “Pilliyee” (flute) and “Zhne” are important and all these have similarities with the musical instruments found in Burmese.
Marriage:
Marriage is a very important part of the social life and also a religious and social obligation in Marma society. Generally marriages are arranged by guardians, but nowadays, love marriages are also recognised. Cross cousin marriages and monogamy are predominant features of this society. Polygamy is also allowed. Child marriage is practically forbidden. Pre-marriage love is common. Both men and women have equal rights to divorce although the final settlement is to be made in the court of Karbari (village court) or of the headman (Mouza or area court). Dowry is not accepted among Marmas. Two types of marriages, such as exogamy and endogamy are prevalent in the Marma society; widow marriage is also allowed.
Traditional Dress:
Marma men usually wear “Lungi” or “Sarong” which is long skirts and shirts. Lungis made of coarse cloth and a shirt without collar but having several pockets. At the time of festivals, senior member of the society use close fitting coat called “Prakha Angyi” over the shirt buttoned at the throat; on the head they use a white kerchief known as “Goung Poung”. Some Marmas prefer “Matoray” (tattooing) for the beauty of the body. Educated sections use trousers, shirts and shoes. The common traditional dress constitute for the Marma women as “Thami” for the lower part of the body till bottom of the ankle and the “Ngyi” (blouse) wear for upper parts. To make them attractive and charming, the female keep tuft called “Chaung Tung” on the head. Sometimes, they decorate their heads with flowers and jewels. “Saloar and Kamiz” are also popular dress of young Marma girls.
Marma men also typically wear “Thami or Sarong” and a full-sleeve or half-sleeve called “Angi”. The Thami is full of colourful traditional designs. However, the Angi used by the men is more a waistcoat than a blouse. The older also love to wear a white turban called “Khobong”. Marmas make their own dresses using traditional weaving technology, although many now purchase common Bengali dresses from the market. They usually do not wear shoes, but by modern civilization the Marmas mostly using shoes and slippers.
Food:
The principal food of Marmas is the boiled rice and vegetables with the addition of certain amount of chillies and salt. The favourite food is “Nappi”, Chagmas called “Sedol” which is a paste of dried fish and decomposed under special arrangement and soup also constitute delicious food of Marmas.. They enjoy rice bear and take two meals a day. “Mundi” (Rice cake) is one of their tasteful items. Drinking of “Lapsy” (Raw tea) after meal is a popular practice. Marma men drink wine and play card games in leisure time. Like the other indigenous tribe, Marmas smoke cheroot with the help of pipe. Some Marmas consume a home-made liquor called “Arey”. They enjoy smoke indigenous cigars. Their diet includes rice, fish, pulses and vegetables. Pork and dried fish are favourite foods. They serve decorated “Pitha” (cake) and sweet rice porridge on ceremonial occasion.
Utensil:
Kitchen utensils in a Marma family are mostly earthen or made of bamboo and wood. Many families, however, use aluminium wares like pots, pans, plates and glasses.
Ornaments:
The Marma women like to wear traditional ornaments made of earlier silver coins of British and Persian origin in a chain with local beads and stones, brass or bronze ear rings, silver bracelets and anklets. The females, specially the younger generation, love to adorn their hair with flowers, which is tied into a knot or tuft.
Death Ritual:
Marmas burn the bodies after the death and bury the remains. If the Buddhist monks or rich men died, their bodies burn with fanfare and organise big ceremony. The funeral ceremony for the dead person is held after seven days from death.