Introduction:

The Chakmas or Chagmas is the largest indigenous hill people living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts(CHT) of Bangladesh. They are the first people living since 200 A.D. in this region and the population in rank, they are the first among the indigenous people in Bangladesh.

It is a fact that in writing, they write their title as “Chakma”. But, when they pronounce its became “Chagma”. The full form as “Chakma or Chagma” is their title used by the people of Sakyas, at present the majority people who are living in the CHT of Bangladesh, North-Easter Region of India and in the Arakan State of Myanmar. The title as “Chakma” is using only by the Anokya Chagmas. For example: Rubessuri Chakma, Nirupam Chakma and so on. The other clan and sub-clans are using their own clans and sub-clans as their title. For example: Adi Kanta Tanchagya, Lodi Chak and so on.

Here the word “Chak” derived from Sak ”, which means “ Sakya or Sakyan or Sakya clan”, and Ma” derived from “Magadha”. As a result, Chak-Ma or Sak-Magadha or Sakyan-Magadha or Sakya clan-Magadha belong from Sakya clan of ancient Kingdom of Magadha.

Chakmas are divided into two main clans called “Ghojas”. They are “Anokya Chagma” and “Tanchangya Chagma”. Further more, the Anokya Chagmas sub-divided into 32 “ Guttis” which means sub-clans. And on the other hand, the Tanchangya Chagmas also sub-divided into 7 Guttis or sub-clans.

The “Anokya Chagma” is the main clan of the Chakma groups. Here according to Chakma literature that the meaning of “An” means “Bring” and “Okya” means “United”. So, together meaning of “Anokya” means “ Bring into Unification or United People”. As a result, whatever the matters or wherever living, they are United and loyal to their Raja or King . As an United people, they are far advance in respect of political, social, cultural, religion, etc. compared to other Chakma groups as well as other indigenous hill tribe in CHT.

The“Tanchangya Chagma” is another major clan of Chakmas. The word “Tan or Tong” which means “peak or mountain or hill” and “Changya” which means “People”. As because that the majority people are like to live on the top of the mountains or peaks or hills. But the Anokya Chagmas are mostly living in the bank of the rivers or low land areas.

Both Anokya Chagmas and Tanchangya Chagmas share a common religion, a slightly-differed language, many similarities are found in social, cultural, folklore, traditional customs and even their original historical fact also no any differences in between them.

It is true that in internationally known them as “Chakma” only. In Myanmar call them “Dainak” or “Thek”, in China call them “Tsak”. Two of the sub-clan of Chakmas also call “Tanchagya Chagma and Chak”, who are living in the CHT of Bangladesh.

Origin:

The first written reference to Chagmas of the CHT dates from about 1550 AD when the Portuguese map maker Lavanha indicated on the earliest surviving map of Bengal that Chagmas lived in a settlement on the Karnafuli River. Two main theories have been put forward about the earlier history of Chagmas. Both assume that they migrated to their present homeland known as “Chittagong Hill Tracts or Jummaland”. The most convincing theory links Chagmas with Myanmar and other theory, for which Chagma ancient philosopher and earliest Buddhist historical evidence is assumes that Chagmas migrated from Champaknagar, Kingdom of Magadha (now India and Nepal). The Chagmas of CHT was the second phases migration from Kingdom of Magadha in 200 A.D.

According to the Early Buddhist historical sources assumes that the Second Buddhist Council was held 100 Buddha Era-BE (-444 Before Christian Era-BCE) after 100 years of Parinibbana of Lord Buddha in the reign of King Kalasoka, at Valikarama in Vesali, Kingdom of Magadha in order to examine the Vinaya (Disciplinary rules of the Monks). Bhikkhu Sabbakami was presided and 700 monks along with 60 Arahants was participated in that council. In this Council they divided into two schools or groups for their disagreement. They are called as “Theravada or Sthaviravada” and the other is called “Mahayana or Mahasangha or Mahasanghika”. The Sakyas who belong to Mahayana groups along with their lay followers went in different parts of the Kingdom of Magadha. Also in the North-Eastern parts of Magadha (now Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram, Nepal, Mongolia, China, Himalayas, Chittagong, East Bengal, Myanmar, Chittagong Hill Tracts, etc.) to settle and practise the Doctrine. The Chagmas or Sakyas originally belong from Sakya clan of Magadha, came and settled in Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, Himalayas, Arakan, Myanmar, China, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts (now Jummaland) and practised Mahayana Buddhism in around 500 BCE. Even though after many centuries, the Changmas still practising Mahayana Buddhism wherever they are, especially in rural areas. Chagmas called “Lori” to their Buddhist Priest (see more “Chagma Bijok”.)

This is another fact that when a series of invasions by Turkish Muslims descended on India in the 9^th to 13th centuries, after the invaders had sacked the great north Indian monasteries and universities and killed many monks and Sakyas follower, Buddhism was dealt a death blow. In 1193 the Muslims attacked and conquered Kingdom of Magadha, the heartland of Buddhism in India, and with the destruction of the Buddhist Monasteries, like Nalanda (1200 AD) in that area Buddhism was wiped out. Only some small remnants of Buddhist communities in the Himalayas areas, Buddhism remained alive. Thousands of Sakya Buddhists fled to different parts, especially north-eastern part of India in order to save their life.

On the other hand, in 11^th and 12^th centuries, the Brahmanism resurgence in India, devout Sakya Buddhists had felt endangered and many thousands fled to different areas of North-Eastern India (mentioned in the “Chagma Bijok or Chagma History” as “Pudis” written by Chagma ancient Philosopher “Shivcharan”. Pudi means old books written on palm leaf).

As a result, the first phases of Chagmas or Sakyas in around 500 BCE came to settle in Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Bhutan, Himalayas, China, etc. who was separated as Mahayana group in the second Buddhist Council. The second phases was the biggest group who came to settled in Arakan State of Myanmar via West Bengal, Tripura, CHT and Mizoram states of India was the main lineage led by their Prince known as “Prince Bijoygiri” in about 200 A.D and the third phases migrated to Assam

Tripura, Assam, CHT, Bengal, Mizoram, Myanmar, etc. in between 9^th-13th centuries, due to invade by Turkish, Muslim and finally Brahmanism resurgence in the Kingdom of Magadha. Of course, they are scattered in different countries for many reasons over centuries to centuries. But they never forget their own ancient language, scriptures and religion.

The Chagmas have Buddhist historical relevant that, they are originally Sakya clan and also was Buddhist, migrated from Champaknagar, Kingdom of Magadha (now people called India and Nepal) who was the ruler of the King Kalasoka. Both the words “Kalasoka and Magadha” are very closed related and logistic meaning with the present Chagma language. The first one is “Kalasoka”. Kala means “Black” and “Sok” means “Eye”. Its literal meaning is “Black Eyes”. The eyes of the King Kalasoka was black. And the other word “Magadha” means “dead body”. But this word, Chagmas use very rarely. When they suffer from problem, danger, killing, torture, pain, murder,etc. they used this word as abusive language. It is sure that they left the Kingdom of Magadha because of killing, destroying, arsons, etc. by the Turkishs, Muslim Fundamentalists and Brahmanism invasion in different centuries.

Moreover, “Pali” language is an ancient Buddhists scripture and spoken by the Sakyas. Even though, after 2550 years, the Chagmas never forgot their ancient language as Pali as well as their Religion. Many Pali words are found in the present Chagma language such as Aggo(Pali), Aggol(Chagma), top(English); Vipāko(Pali), Vipak(Chagma), result(English); Pucch(Pali), Pucchargar (Chagma), asked(English); Rājaputto(Pali), Rajapua(Chagma), prince(English), etc. and still 99% Chagmas are practising Buddhism all over the world.

According to the Chagma historical and ancient philosophers sources in brief that: In 2^nd century, a Sakya King of Magadha named was Chagma Raja Samagiri. He had two sons named Prince Bijoygiri and Prince Udaigiri. In the middle of the century, the Prince Bijoygiri marched with a large number military from capital city of Champaknagar of the Kingdom of Magadha in order to conquer new territories and invaded Tripura Kingdom(now Tripura state of India), Kuki Territory (now Mizoram state of India) Bengal (now CHT, Chittagong, Rangunia, Cox's Bazar of Bangladesh) and finally conquered Roang Kingdom(now Arakan state of Myanmar). After his dead, his successors lost the Roang Kingdom for about a century. Later in 1118-1119 AD, Chagma Raja Kamal Chega (his wife Queen Manikbi) fought with Maghs King of Roang. After the war of success, he recaptured the Kingdom and established Chagma dynasty and later he shifted the capital to Chittagong from Akyab. In around 14^th century, Chagma Raja Marekyaja permanently established his ruled in Chittagong and CHT. The whole Region was then an independent Buddhist kingdom ruled by Chagma Raja of the Chagma dynasty.

However, long before in the year 953 a king of Arakan occupied the present districts of CHT and Chittagong. Later in 1240, King of Tripura occupied this region. The Arakanese King recaptured the district in 1575 and continued possession till 1666. In fact this region frequently changed hands between the rulers of Hill Tripura and Arakan. The Mughals controlled the area from 1666 to 1760. In 1760 the area was ceded to East India company.

From 15^th to 17^th centuries, the CHT came under the control of three feuding forces- the Mughal (Islam), the King of Tripura (Hindu) and King of Chagma (Buddhist). During these 300 years until under the domination of the British in 1774, Buddhism maintained a flickering existence in this area. The Chagmas exerted the greatest influence and their kings exercise total control over all indigenous society. Chagma Raja Rono Khan was the most powerful King in this Region till 1787. In 1874, Raja Harish Chandra Roy Bahadur became Chagma King in the Chagma Dynasty and later he transferred the capital from Raja Nagar of Rangunia to Rangamati permanently.

After Raja Nalinksha Roy died in 1952, the administrative system, land rights, and closure to outside settlers all set it apart from the rest of Bengal. This status was reconfirmed in the 1930's, when the region was declared an excluded area under the Government of India Act.

So, in 1935, these hills became out of control of the Bengal administration and in the hands of the tribal Chiefs. 1947 marked the end of British rule, and there was continual intrusion of the Bengali settlers into the hills. Many of these settlers had the unstated support of the successive governments of Pakistan, then Bangladesh. Today almost half of the population of the Hill Tracts is Bengali.

After decolonisation in 1947, the CHT were incorporated into East Pakistan. Later in 1971 became Bangladesh. The special administrative status of the CHT was continued, and the Regulation of 1900 was never clearly rescinded, despite piecemeal mutations. For this reason, the office of the Chagma, Bohmong and Mong Chief survives till today.

From 1118 to 1874 AD (Chagma Raja Kamal Chega to Chagma Raja Harish Chandra Roy Bahadur) the Kingdom (Roang, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Cox's Bazar, Rangunia, Mizoram) more or less was under the control of Chagma Rajas.

Some of the prominent Chagma Rajas were: Raja Kalasoka (100 BE), Raja Samargiri (200 A.D), Raja Bijoygiri (200), Raja Kamal Chega (1118-1119), Raja Marekyaja (1400), Raja Sulab Khan (1712), Raja Fateh Khan (1715), Raja Jallal Khan (1715), Raja Shermusta Khan (1737), Raja Sher Dawlat Khan (1776), Raja Jan Box Khan (1782), Raja Rono Khan (1787), Raja Tabur Khan(1800), Raja Jabbar Khan (1800), Raja Dharam Box Khan (1800), Raja Shukdev Roy (1800), Queen Kalindi Rani (1830 – 1873), Raja Harish Chandra Roy Bahadur (1874), Raja Harish Chandra Roy Bahadur was transferred the capital from Raja Nagar of Rangunia to Rangamati in 1874. Raja Bhuvan Mohan Roy (1876- 1934), son of Raja Harish Chandra Roy Bahadur; Raja Nalininako Roy (1902 – 1952), son of Bhuvan Mohan Roy; Raja Tridiv Roy (1933- ), son of Raja Nalininako Roy; Raja Devshis Roy (1959- ), son of Raja Tridiv Roy; Prince Tribhuwan Arydev Roy (1990- ), son of Raja Devasish Roy (see more Chagma Bijok).

Population:

The Chagma population is estimated to be around 2 millions. It is spread over seven different countries. The approximately total populations of Chagmas 600,000 are located in the CHT of Bangladesh. There are also about 500,000 in India, and 45,000 in Burma (Myanmar), 60 persons in Australia, 500 persons in France, 60 persons in Great Britain, 40 persons in USA, 100 persons in Canada, 100 in Sri Lanka, etc.

Social Administration:

The Chagmas are patrimonial and normally father is the head of the family. The role of mother and eldest son is also recognised in the family. The Chagma Raja is the social head of the Chagma tribe and as well as the Raja of Chagma Circle in CHT and below him there are Hedmans and Karbaris who help Chief for the collection of revenues from the cultivators and to maintain social order and peace in their respective villages and areas.

Chakmas are divided into two main clans called “Ghojas”. They are “Anokya Chagma” and “Tanchangya Chagma”. Further more, the Anokya Chagmas sub-divided into 32 “ Guttis” which means sub-clans. And on the other hand, the Tanchangya Chagmas also sub-divided into 7 Guttis or sub-clans. Members of the same sub-clan are forbidden to marry each other. Parents arrange marriages, although the wishes of sons and daughters are taken into account. A bride price (goods given by groom's family to bride's family) is fixed when the two families negotiate the marriage. The marriage ceremony is known as “Sumulong” and is performed by Buddhist priests known as “Bhante”. Bhante also play an important role in the society.

The disease, who give treatment is called “Baddhya” like doctor in English. Baddhya is still playing role in the society for medical treatment. In the Chagma society also gives a place of importance to female priest called “Ojha”, who perform the task of midwifery. There are certain worships performed by the Chagmas like “Than-Mana”, “Bhur Para”, “Sumulong” etc. performed by male Ojhas. In the Chagma custom the main activities for girl is to know how to weaving. Most of the Chagma girls learn during their childhood. For them, it is a kind of game. So, they able to learn how to weave from their grandmothers and mothers.

Social Problems:

The Chagma people face difficult situations today. Their population is larger than that of over sixty independent nations. They are fragmented and scattered over three countries, viz. Bangladesh, India and Myanmar. In each country, Chagmas form a minority and many are refugees from their homeland, living in conditions of squalor.

The most serious problem faced by the Chagmas in CHT of Bangladesh, where they are fighting for an independent homeland as “Jummaland”. Chagmas and along with other 12 indigenous people have resorted to armed warfare against the government of Bangladesh since 1972. This, in turn, has led to reprisals by the police and Bangladeshi Army. Both Amnesty International and the United States have reported human rights violations against Chagma civilians.

The Chagmas also living in the north-eastern parts of India that mainly in Mizoram, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. In 1972, the Government of India giving Autonomous District Council for the Chagmas in Mizoram which not adequate that 2/3 majority outside the district council. So, they are still demanding Greater Autonomous District Council or Union Territory in Mizoram. The Chagmas of Tripura, demanding to recognition of “Chagma Language” in the state primary education system. The Chagmas of Arunchal Pradesh still stateless people since their migration in 1964. The Chagmas of Assam, demanding Regional Council.

Lifestyle:

Chagmas build their houses on slopes near the banks of a river or a stream. A few related families may build on the same plot of land, creating a homestead is called “Aam”. Aam is the original word of the Chagmas. Now, most of the Chagmas called “Ghar”, such as “Tong-Ghar, Mono-Ghar, Het-Ghar, Ghile-Ghar, Radha-Ghar, Samareng-Ghar, Gudham-Ghar, Dhaan-Ghar, etc. The original word Aam is related only with “Aamattal” which means under the house. They don't used the word like Gharattal. Many house cluster together to form a hamlet called “Para” and a number of hamlets make up a village called “Adhaam”. The traditional Chagma house is made by bamboo. It is constructed on a bamboo or wooden platform about two meters (six feet) above the ground. The house is built on the rear of the platform. Mat walls divide the house into separate compartments. A porch in the front of the house is divided in two by a mat partition. One area is used by men and boys and the other by women and girls. Small compartments may be built for storage of grain, rice and other possessions. They also build a house for chicken, goat, paddy, etc. called “Huroo-Ghar”, “Sagal-Ghar”, “Dhaan-Ghar” respectively. This houses are made by bamboos and trees.

Livelihood:

Traditionally, the Chagma lifestyle was closely linked with hill agriculture or shifting cultivation called “Jum”. Living in settled villages, they would cultivate plots on surrounding hills for some years, then leave them fallow to recuperate naturally. Chagmas also cultivated land in river valleys. They had a well-developed system of land rights, which differed sharply from those in the plains.

According to early observers, the living standard of cultivators in the CHT was relatively high. Rice, cotton and vegetables were important crops. The bamboo was essential as building material. The bamboo had so many other uses that the Chagma lifestyle has been described as a “Bamboo Civilization”. In the colonial period, social differentiation grew as an elite developed, basing its lifestyle on a share of the government tax and on educational achievements. In the twentieth century, population growth made hill cultivation more problematic mainly because fallow periods had to be shortened - and more Chagmas had to find non-agricultural jobs.

Their problem was intensified by the government policy of transmigration. From the late 1970's, hundreds of thousands of poor Bengali lowland cultivators were brought to the CHT under military protection. Land scarcity increased sharply, and Chagmas saw their lifestyle threatened further. Many were forced into low-income wage labour (e.g. on new rubber plantations); over 25,000 fled to Mizoram in 1983-84 and 80,000 fled and lived on doles in refugee camps in Tripura from 1986 till their repatriation in 1998.

Language:

The Chagmas speak own dialect used own standard scripts and alphabets, although today this is not commonly used. Originally speaking a language belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family, the Chagma of CHT have been heavily influenced by ancient Sakyan language related to Pali and an Eastern Indo-Aryan language closely related to Bengali. Many linguists now consider the modern Chagma language known as “Chagma Hõda” part of the South-eastern branch of Eastern Indo-Aryan languages. Chagma Hoda is written in its own script, known as “Ojhapath”.

Chagma literature runs from the oral traditions of the “Genghuli Geet” through literary periodicals to modern poetry. The first of which was Goirika Chakma started in 1936 and another modern art form in which Chagmas made their mark is painting.

Chagma language is more and most advanced of the tribal languages in CHT. Some old “Pudis” are extant in this language. Pudi means old book and it was first written on palm leaf by Chagma ancient historical philosopher named “Shivcharan”. Some of them are Chagma Bijok, Chadigang Chara Pala, Chandobi Barhamaj, Radhaman-Dhanpudi, Nuaram-Chandabi, Genghuli Geet, etc. In the Pudis mentioned that the Chagmas of CHT originated in the Kingdom of Magadha (now India and Nepal) and after roaming about in several South-East Asian countries came to old Burma and Arakan finally settled in the CHT in around 9^th century. Their original name was “Sak”, because they belong to Sakya clan, in the Arakanese language is call “Chak”, in Burmese call “Dainak or Thek”, in Mizos call them “Takam”, in Chittagonian language is call “Cammua”. In New Delhi call them “Bahadur” because they think that the people came from Nepal, most of Nepalese used their title as Bahadur and their complexion in between the Chagmas and Nepalese almost the same. But they themselves call as “Chagma” in pronunciation and in writing they write as “Chakma”. Moreover, it has a historical fact that one of the Chagma Raja named as Raja Harish Chandra Roy Bahadur ruled the Chagma Dynasty in 1874.

The alphabets of the Chagma language are similar to the alphabets of Thai, Khmer, Old Pali, Laos, Cambodia, Siam and South Burma. “Tara” the scripture of the Chagmas, is written in the Burmese script. When spoken, the Chagma alphabet has a soft sound and is generally articulated from the bottom of the tongue. It is primarily based on sound and has a Chinese tone. In many respects (including philology, prosody, folklore, idioms and phonology) it is closed to Pali, Nepali, Assamese and Bengali. All sounds of Bengali language are also available in the modern Chagma language. Efforts are now being made to write the Chagma language in the Burmese or Myanmar script. A book of primary reading in Chagma has also been published from Rangamati. Its author is Nayanram Chakma. And also published a book as “Agpudi” in the Chakma District Council in Mizoram state of India.

There are many songs written in the Chagma language. These have been composed in colloquial Chagma. The language of the book “Gojen Lama” written by the Chagma poet as well as philosopher “Shivcharan” in 1777 is almost like Bengali. Radhaman-Dhanpudi and Chadigang Chara Pala are two important lyrical poems. The metres used in Chagmas and Bengali verse are almost similar. The syntax of the two languages are also identical. The numbers in Chagma language are pronounced as in Bengali. The minus symbol in Chagma is called “Farhak” and the sign of multiplication is called “Dunna”. The other symbols are the same in both languages. In the Chagma language s (anaskar) is called “Ek Pudo”, t (visarga) is called “Di Pudo” and u (chandrabindu) is called “Chan Pudo”.

Chagma folk literature is quite rich. It has many folklores and fables. A traditional folk song of the Chagmas is “Ubhageet”. Proverbs and traditional sayings are a unique feature of the Chagma language. These sayings mainly centre on farming, animals and birds, nature, society, religion and the mystery of the human body. In conjugation and declension present day Chagma language is close to Pali, Nepali, Bengali, Assamese, Rajbangshi, Garo Sangma and Chittagonian. This language has 6 regional forms. Within the Chagmas different clans have their distinct dialects.

Folklore:

The myth that describes the origin of the Chagma traces to the ancient Kingdom of Champaknagar. Once upon a Prince named Bijoygiri son of King Samargiri marched east of the Kingdom of Magadha with a large army in the hope of conquering new lands. He crossed the Meghna River and captured the Kingdom of Tripura (now Tripura state in India), Kuki Territory (now Mizoram state of India), Bengal (now CHT, Chittagong, Cox's Bazaar, etc.) and Roang (now Arakan state in Myanmar), where he settled. His armies intermarried with the Burmese, Arakanese and other indigenous tribes in different regions and times and gradually adopted into mixed society and finally established his rule in Kingdom of Roang, Kingdom of Tripura, Kuki Territory and Bengal. ( see more Chagma Bijok).

Religion:

From the Early Buddhist historical evidence assumes that the Chagmas of CHT was Buddhists belong from Mahayana school since 100 BE to 1864 AD. But from 15^th to 17^th centuries, the CHT came under the control of three feuding forces- the Mughal (Islam), the King of Tripura (Hindu) and King of Chagma (Buddhist). During these 300 years until under the domination of the British in 1774, Buddhism maintained a flickering existence in this Region. Later at the beginning of 18^th century, Chagma of CHT practising Theravad Buddhism, which was synchronised a little bit mixed with Animist and Hindu beliefs. The Chagmas also worship Hindu deities like Laksmi, for example, is worship as the God for Harvest. Chagmas offer the sacrifice of goats, chickens, ducks to calm the spirits that are believed to bring fevers and disease. At that time, temples are very few and Buddhist monk who claimed as monk, not in a proper ordination. The Chagmas called them “Lori”. The Lories, a sect of Buddhist priest used to perform all religious rites in the Chagma society. They used to follow a religious book called “Agartara”. The language of these “Tara” is religious book but it translated from Pāli Canon of the “Tipitakā”. According to this theory, Chagmas of CHT was influenced by the Mahayana Buddhism mixed with Hindu and Animist. In the midst of 19^th century, the Lories are found in remote rural areas, but their numbers began to decline due to rise of monastic form of Buddhist Monastic Order as “Bhikkhu Sangha” in the society. The mid 19th century, was a turning point in the religious history of the of Theravada Buddhism in CHT as well as in whole Bangladesh. In 1864, Venerable. Saramitta Mahasthavir along with a group of monks came to visit from Arakan by the sponsored Royal Patronage of Chagma Queen Kalindi Rani (1830 – 1873). He organised a full ordination ceremonies, both in Chittagong and Rangamati among the Chagmas, Baruas and Marmas communities where the large number of Buddhists resided in Bangladesh. In that ceremonies, more than 20 monks from Chagma and Marma communities was took full and proper ordination as “Bhikkhu” under him as the Theravada lineage. Since than the Theravada Buddhism is playing vital role in religious matters in Chagma social life. Almost in every Chagma village has a Buddhist temple called “Hiyang”. Buddhist priests or monks are called “Bhikkhus”. But the lay followers address them as “Bhante”. They preside at religious festivals and ceremonies. The villagers support their monks with four requisites as food, medicine, cloths and dwelling place according to Lord Buddha admonish.

Some of the prominent Spiritual leaders are: Rajguru Aggawangsa Mahathera, Venerable Tilokananda Mahathera, Venerable Sadanananda Mahathera (Bana Bhante), Venerable Bimal Bhikkhu, Venerable Prajnānanda Mahathera, Venerable Sumalankar Mahathera, Venerable Satyananda Mahathera, Venerable Gyanadhaja Mahathera, Bhikkhu Anicca and so on.

Some important temples are: Raj Bana Vihar, Raj Vihar, Ananda Vihar, Moitri Vihar, Milanpur Buddha Vihar, Sakyamuni Buddha Vihar, Parbatya Bouddha Mission, Bargang Buddha Vihar and so on.

Culture:

Buddhists books, translated from Pali Canon into Chagma and written on palm leaves, are known as “Agartara”. The “Tallik” is a detailed account of herbal medicinal prescription , methods of their preparation, and their use in the treatment of disease. The disease, who give treatment is called “Baddhya” like doctor in English. Baddhya is still playing role in the society for medical treatment.

Folk music is a major aspect of Chagma culture. It includes romantic love songs known as “Ubha Geet”. The “Genghuli Geet” ballads relate incidents from the past. There are also epic poems like Radhamon-Dhanapati, Nuaram-Chandobi, Haabi-Daabi, Tanyabi, Ghilepara Geet, etc.

Traditional musical instruments include a bugle called “Duduk” made from buffalo horn, a circular piece of iron with a string stretched across it that vibrates to produce sound, and a drum. The bamboo flute called “Bajii” is played by almost all Chagma youth. Dancing is an important part of Chagma life, especially Bizu Festival as called “Bizu Naaj”. Some other instruments are Henggarang, Taak, etc.

Education:

Chagmas live in isolated areas of Bangladesh. They are not part of the majority population and are quite poor by Western standards. They do not have access to Western-style education. Literacy (ability to read and write) among men of the hill tribes is about 15 percent. This figure drops to 7 percent for women. Nowadays, they are in advanced in percentage compared to other majority Muslim, Hindus and other minorities indigenous tribes in Bangladesh. We can found Ambassador, Coronal in Army Staff, Minister in Cabinet, hundreds of first class Gazetted Officers, thousands of government and non-government employees, etc.

Hospitality:

Chagma hospitality is overflowing. When guests first arrived, they arranged water to clean the feet in front of the door. Later given water to drink from a clay jar called “Hotti” and given to smoke made by bamboo called “Daba” and finally given home-brewed liquor made by sticky rice called “Midejogora”. The Daba is a pipe made by bamboo which is used for smoking tobacco. It has a long flexible tube attached to a water bottle. The smoke is cooled by passing over the water before being inhaled by the smoker.

Chagmas greet each other with the Buddhist traditional way, called “Ju Ju”. They join their palm together and greet each other in the first meet at the standing position. The children and adult vows with join palm and respect to the elders and ask for blessing for their prosperous future life.

Employment:

The Chagmas are farmers. In old days, there is no ownership of land, but Chakma custom holds that no one should interfere with fields that look like someone else is farming there. Land is cleared of trees and bushes, and any remaining vegetation is burned during the dry season in April. Crops are planted after the first heavy rains. Harvesting usually takes place in October and November. At the present system, the ownership of land is must, especially in the lowland areas.

Many Chagmas have given up their farming lifestyle and have entered the labour market. Those fortunate enough to have the necessary education have gone on to clerical and other white collar jobs. Many, however, work as labourers in the factories and industrial projects that have grown up along the valley of the Borgang (Karnafuli River). Now, hundreds of Chagmas enjoying jobs in the Government Office, Private sectors, Business Sectors, Public sectors, NGO's etc. Even we can found hundreds of first class Gazetted Officers in Bangladesh.

Crafts and Hobbies:

The Chagma are skilled at making a variety of household goods from bamboo, often using nothing more than a simple knife. Even, they made pistol, country-made gun very easily as because, they were warrior belong from Sakya clans of Magadha. Women are expert weavers and dyers and make their own cloth called “Alam”. They are skilled in the art of making baskets from bamboo. For Chagma women Alam is like a “Bible” in Christianity. They can make whatever they want design or colour on looking Alam when weave. They preserves its generation by generation.

Foods:

The staple food of the Chagmas is rice, supplemented by millet, corn or maize, forest potatoes, vegetables, and mustard. Vegetables include yams, pumpkins, melons, and cucumbers. Vegetables and fruit gathered from the forest may be added to the diet. Fish, poultry, and meat (even pork) are eaten.

Traditional diets have slowly been abandoned, as the Chagmas have been forced to flee their homeland. Some typical Chagma dishes include fish, vegetables, and spices stuffed into a length of bamboo and cooked in a low fire; foods wrapped in banana leaves and placed beside a fire; and eggs that are aged until they are rotten. One of the Chagma traditional restaurant set up at Rangmati called “Peda Ting Ting”. All kinds of Chagma dishes are available there. The tourist are crowded both from national and international. Many hotels and restaurants are found in the city of Rangamati and Khagrachari.

Chagmas drink alcoholic beverages freely, and every household makes its own rice liquor. Alcohol is consumed at all festivals and social occasions. An alcohol named “Midejogora” make by sticky rice is the favourite in Chagma society, even the children also enjoy during the Bizu Festival.

Marriage:

Chagma marriage is generally settled through negotiations. The average age of marriage for girls are 15 to 20 and for boys, 22 to 25. Men are not monogamous. A man can take more than one wife, if he can afford it. Widow remarriage is allowed. A woman, after her husband's death, gives up wearing ornaments and colourful clothe. Divorce is permitted in certain situations.

Chagmas of CHT are in advent of modern lifestyle in the hills, their wedding ceremonies have taken a new shape. Inter racial marriages are not socially approved of. Parents with the help of a matchmaker called “Samala” arrange the ceremony. Chagma people set the wedding date according to the calender. They usually not marry during the dark moon, full moon, or eclipse.

Most marriages take place during winter. It takes at least three days to finish the ceremony. Major ceremonies including the exchange of vows take place at the house of the groom. The groom and his relatives go to the house of the bride with wedding gifts. He stays there the first night. The next days he brings the bride to his house for the main ceremony. On the first night at his house the Sumulong ceremony takes place. However, the couple cannot have their formal “Honey Moon” yet. They cannot spend the first night alone. One of the relative from the bride's side stays with the couple. The Honey Moon takes place few days after that. During the wedding three days of feast takes place. The formal dress of the bride is Pinon and Hadi and for groom Dudi, Habang and special white shirt.(see more Chakma-Mizoram)

Members of the same sub-clan are forbidden to marry each other. Parents arrange marriages, although the wishes of sons and daughters are taken into account. A bride price (goods given by groom's family to bride's family) is fixed when the two families negotiate the marriage. The marriage ceremony is known as “Sumulong” and is performed by Buddhist priests known as “Bhante”. If young people elope, the marriage can be formalized on payment of fines. Polygynous (marriage to more than one wife) is acceptable but rare. Divorce is allowed, as is remarriage after the death of a spouse.

Major Holidays:

Chagmas celebrate various Buddhist festivals. The most important religious festival is “Buddha Purnima”. This is the anniversary of three sacred events in Buddha's life—His birth, His attainment of Enlightenment, and His Parinibbana. It is observed on the full moon day of the month of Vaisakh (in the month of May). Other religious festival are Katina Ceremony, Ashari Purnima, Maghi Purnima, Madhu Purnima, Pravarona Purnima and so on.

Chagmas also celebrate New Year Festival as National festival days, its called “Bizu Festival”. Its last about a week. They organised at least a month ago to prepare the whole programme. On the religious and National New Year festival days, they put on their best clothes and visit the Buddhist Temples and houses. They bring food, honey, civaras, etc. to offer to monks and also offer flowers, light candles and insane and worship to the Lord Buddha, and listen to sermons from the monks. The children and adult visit house to house and vows to the elder and ask blessing from them for their future prosperous life. Alms (offerings) are given to the poor, and feasts to the public. For their entertainment, they organise different kinds of games and sports like Ghile Hara, Nadeng Hara, Gudu Hara, Pour Hara, Patti Hara etc.; cultural show, drama and also singing and dancing competition.

Sports:

The main National games of the Chagmas are Ghilya Hara, Nadeng Hara, Gudu Hara, Pour Hara, Patti Hara, Palla Pulli Hara, Boda Budi, Maj Hara, Andik Hara, etc. Mostly, they played during the months of Bizu Festival.Both male and female can join in the games.

Gudu Hara is a game played by the two teams stand on either side of a central line. They take turns sending a player into opposing territory to touch as many people as he or she can during the space of one breath, while at the same time saying "Gudu, Gudu, Gudu....." . If the player runs out of breath or is caught by his or her opponents, he or she is out. On the other hand, if the player successfully returns to his or her own territory, the players he or she has tagged must leave the game.

Ghilya Hara is a game also played by two teams, used a individual disk called “Ghile” which is a uneatable fruits in the forests. When it ripe its fall down on the ground and also mostly collected from the forest by the adult for the purpose of this game only. It is small, flat and round shape look like a computer mouse. Chagmas have especial Ubha Geet called “Ghilya Para Geet”. It is the longest love song among the Ubha Geet.

Nadeng Hara, played with a spinning top and various wrestling games. It is artificial made by wood like umbrella. But small in size like cup or glass and the body is round with one leg only. This game is not suitable for girls. Mostly playing by two persons. It is also a danger for audience that might hit unwillingly.

Recreation:

Traditional forms of recreation include popular folk songs and music, and drama, picnic, the village opera. Wrestling and other sports held at fairs are popular. In the past, hunting and fishing were favourite pastimes.

Song and Music:

The name of the folk songs of Chagma love song "Ubha Geet". The "Genghuli Geet" performs it with a violin on different social functions. The “Hobi Gan” is a competition or challenge through the song. Its also sung in the social and any public functions.

Ubha Geet: An Ubha Geet of the Chagma is the traditional love song sung by the young people. It not generally sung in public as the Chagmas are very particular in chastity and respect to elders. Since the Ubha Geet contains lust and longings also discloser of love it is considered obscene and harmful to the tender aged. So it is treated unlawful to sing in public or to sing before an elder. So the Ubha Geets are generally sung in lonely places like "Ranya" (abandoned jum), "Jharat" (in the forest) and while collecting vegetable etc. Before singing an Ubha Geet, the singer had to consider whether there is any elder or of any incest relatives. However it can be tuned at home in a flute or Henggarang (the Chagma considers the relation between uncle and niece, aunt and nephew, father, mother, real sister, younger brothers wife, wife elder sister as incest).

The meanings of the Ubha Geet are sometimes arousing and satiric. It is generally lustful and centres upon longing and union. The Geets are composed by the singers themselves. The style of composition is in the traditional Chagma style i.e. the first lines of the stanza does not necessarily have any meaning or connection with the second part of the stanza. The first lines are only comparison or description of the day to day works and happenings in the society. It is only used to synchronise the second portion in a rhythm. The main theme of an Ubha Geet lies in the second part of the stanza. The Geets are still sung by the young people of rural area. For example: “Soona ruba aadhe paaran baksut boredung, Anna puni adhe paaran nittyo mu seh dung”.

Genghuli Geet: Genghuli Geet is the documents of the Chagma history. It is open to all and organised in especial occasion by the villagers to remember their ancestor. The singer sung its totally by heart without looking any papers or book. He can tell all the Chagma history through his song. In every few minutes, the participant encourage to the singer by their loudly sound as “E Ho Hoo Hoo......!”. Its usually start at evening and finish morning. Sometimes, its last up to one week.

Hobi Gan: Hobi Gan is only for adult and aged, not for the children. It is a competitive song, sung by the two singers. They sung one after another to put down the reputation or image or carrier or character, etc. through their song. In ever song consistent only two stanzas. One singer finish another singer start to defeat the point what he told through his song. It is very interesting that all kinds of languages permitted to use through his song to put down him. But it is not permitted to quarrel. It is quarrelling, but through song only.

Festival:

Bizu Naaj is the popular form of dance is characteristic of the Chagma community. Bizu means “Chagma New Year Eva”. Its denotes end of Bengali calendar year. It is also similar to “Water Festival” in Burmese New Year and Assamese New Year. During this period, the Chagmas sing and dance to bid good-bye to the year just being ended and welcome the new year. The dance is beautifully orchestrated with the rhythm playing of what is known as “Henggarang, Taak, Bajii and Duduk” sorts of flutes.

Bizu is the main festival of the Chagmas. It is celebrated for three days or sometimes one week to welcome the new year and to say goodbye to the old one. It is observed in the middle of April. On the first day, the girl and boys decorate their respective houses with flower. They go to the temple to worship and pay respect to the monks. During this days, most of the Chagmas visit the temple with bring food, insane, flowers, candles, etc. On the second days of the festival every householder in the village prepare cakes made of rice, flour, coconut, banana and sugar and a special vegetables dish called "Pajonton" is also prepared and guests are entertained with cakes and Pajonton. The boys and girls, maidens and youths move house to house and seek blessings from elders and exchange greetings.

Traditional Dress:

Dress of the Chagma communities of Bangladesh usually make their own clothes for their dresses. Almost every family has a loom. In the CHT, the fabrics made by the tribal people in their own looms are very colourful. They make sheets, thin towels, dress material, carpets and carrying bags. Traditionally, tribal people have used cotton produced by them on the hill slopes and they themselves have made the yarn for weaving and used natural colours for dyeing. These days, however, they buy yarn and dyes extensively from the market. Dresses for women are full of attractive and colourful designs.

Chagma men have original dress they wear on the head is called “Habhang” especially weeding ceremony; lower part of the body is called “Dudi” and wear a white especial shirt. They wear like as shirt when go for Jum cultivation in the forest is called “Jumma Silum”. But, now they becoming into modernization that have given up their traditional clothes for Western-style shirts and trousers.

Both adult girls and boys wear modern shirt and trousers make by women's. (see photo gallery).

It is the women who maintain the traditional Chagma style of dress, which consists of two pieces of cloth. One is worn as a skirt, wrapped around the lower part of the body and extending from waist to ankle. Its traditional colour is black or blue or red or mixed, with a red border at top and bottom is called “Pinon”. One end of the Pinon has designs and is called “Chabugi”. While wearing the Pinon, Chabugi is always placed on the left. Its measures approximately 4cubits by 2cubits. In the old day, the women prepare to wear only two types of Pinon – Hala (black) Ranga (colourful). But in the modern, we can found varieties in colours.

The second piece of cloth is a breast-band, woven with coloured designs, that is tightly wrapped around the upper body is called “Hadi”. There are variety of colours, we found among the women. But mostly, Ranga (red), Hala (black) and Soj(green). All kinds of Hadi is designated by their choices and interest with mixed varieties of colourful. But, mostly measures 3cubits by 2cubits. The women also wear Habhang on their heads when they go in kitchen to cook.

Chagma women preserve their traditional designs on a piece of cloth called “Alam” to help future generations pick up designs from it. For Chagma women, Alam is like a Tipitaka in Buddhism for Buddhist. They keep preserves generation by generation.

The women also worn with a variety of necklaces, bracelets, anklets, rings, and other ornaments. Chagma women are skilled weavers and make their own cloth.

Birth Ritual:

After the birth of a child, keep some soil and lights a fire near the bed of the child. Its kept burning for five days. Afterwards, the soil is thrown away and both mother and baby tale bathe. A woman is considered unclean for a month after childbirth and is not allowed to cook food during this period. Children are breastfed for several years by their mothers.

Death Ritual:

On death, the body is placed in an outside the room and after final bath, the body is covered by a white cloth. Flower are spread over the cloth and relatives also place money on it. The Buddhist monk chants prayers. The body is taken to a cremation ground where it is placed in a funeral pyre of wood. Cremation usually occurs in the afternoon. The eldest son ignites the pyre, after circling it seven times. The purification ceremony is called as “Satdinya”, which is takes place six days after the cremation, feast is given to the Bhante (Buddhist monk), relations and fellow member of the society. The mourning period for the family lasts for seven days. During this periods, the eat only vegetarian food. When a wealthy person or an aristocrat or Buddhist monks dies, a special ceremony is held. The body is kept in a coffin which is placed in a chariot. It is pulled with the accompaniment of drum beats, fire works etc. and assembly of a large number of people.

There is also a special custom of offerings for many generation of their ancestors departed souls. In this ritual called “Bhadya”, a list of dead ancestors up to three or five generations is prepared and small cremation pyres for them are prepared in the cremation ground. The Bhantes and the relations invoke the spirits of the ancestors.

Chagma Buddhists believe in reincarnation. This means that they believe that the dead person's spirit will return to earth in another living form. The morning after the cremation, relatives visit the cremation ground to search for footprints. They believe that the departed will have left some mark of his or her new incarnation (living form). Some remains of bones are collected, put in an earthen pot, and placed in a nearby river. Some are made Memorial stone with the bones and ashes. Some are take the bones or ashes to the Holy places of Lord Buddha when they visit.