Medieval France
. The first monks lived either as solitaries or under the direct supervision of an abba (‘father’). This seems to have been the case with the first known European monastic house, Marmoutier, established in 361 by Martin of Tours. As monasticism developed into a permanent institution, the charisma of a spiritual master was supplemented by written legislation regulating the common life in the monastery. As de Vogüé has shown, the earliest sources of such monastic guidelines (Pachomius, Basil, Augustine), all written ca. 400, exercised a decisive influence on the subsequent tradition. Quotations from them appear in later monastic rules, which also borrow among themselves to a striking degree. This reflects the eclectic nature of monastic establishments until the triumph of the Rule of St. Benedict in the 9th century. About 300 monastic rules were written between the end of the 4th century and last half of the 7th. The majority provide no more than the barest suggestions for the regulation of life within the monastery. They vary considerably in length and detail, from the succinct De ordine monasterii (by Augustine, or from his circle) to the enormous Rule of the Master, whose ninety-five chapters legislate on every conceivable aspect of monastic discipline. (Benedict’s Rule is little more than one-third the length of the Master’s.) The Rule for Virgins (ca. 534) by Caesarius of Arles is the first rule written for female religious. Its prescriptions for the Divine Office are thought to reflect the lost tradition of Lérins, an island monastery off the coast of Provence near Cannes, founded ca. 410 by Honoratus. The origin of the monastic customaries coincides with the activity of Carolingian reformers, led by Benedict of Aniane (d. 821), to impose the Rule of St. Benedict everywhere in the Frankish empire. The customaries make specific, detailed applications of the Rule to the circumstances present in a single monastery or a group of monasteries. They not only interpret and supplement the directives of the Rule but can actually alter Benedict’s careful equilibrium, as happened with the large quantity of liturgical obligations required by the customs in force at Cluny. A common customary imposed the influence of the great monasteries like Cluny, Saint-Benoît-sur-Loire, and Cîteaux on daughter houses. The monastic customaries can profitably be studied as a source of information on contemporary social and cultural life. Joseph H.Dyer [See also: BENEDICT, RULE OF ST.; BENEDICT OF ANIANE; CISTERCIAN ORDER; CLUNY; LÉRINS; MONASTICISM] Desprez, Vincent, ed. Règles monastiques d’Occident (IVe-VIe siècle): d’Augustin a Ferréol. Begrolles-en-Mauges: Abbaye de Bellefontaine, 1980. Franklin, Carmela, et al., eds. Early Monastic Rules: The Rules of the Fathers and the Regula Orientalis. Collegeville: Liturgical, 1982. Hallinger, Kassius, et al., eds. Corpus consuetudinum monasticarum. 12 vols. to date. Siegeburg: Schmitt, 1963–. de Vogüé, Adalbert. “The Cenobitic Rules of the West.” Cistercian Studies 12(1977):175–83. ——. Les règles monastiques anciennes (400–700). Turnhout: Brepols, 1985. Hallinger, Kassius. “Consuetudo, Begriff, Formen, Forschungsgeschichte.” Untersuchungen zu Kloster und Stift. Max-Planck-Institut far Geschichte, Veröffentlichungen 68 (1980):140–66. This is the complete article, containing 496 words (approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page).
MonasticismFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search
Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone) is the religious practice in which someone renounces worldly pursuits to fully devote their life to spiritual work. The origin of the word is from Ancient Greek, and the idea originally related to Christian monks. In the Christian tradition, those pursuing a monastic life are usually called monks or brethren (brothers) if male, and nuns or sisters if female. Both monks and nuns may also be called monastics. Some other religions also include what could be described as "monastic" elements, most notably Buddhism, but also Taoism, Hinduism, and Jainism, though the expressions differ considerably.
[edit] Buddhist monasticismMain article: Buddhist monasticism
The order of Buddhist bhikkus (similar to monks) and original bhikkhunis (similar to nuns) (Sangha) was founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics, some of whom the Buddha had studied under, and was initially fairly eremetic in nature. Bhikkhus and bhikkunis were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that bhikkhus required, and provided shelter for bhikkhus when they were needed. 
After the death of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis—the Patimokkha—relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of bhikkhus or bhikkhunis. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada bhikkhus follow around 227 rules. There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns). Buddhist monasticism with its tradition of councils, missions, and being a source of knowledge and literacy spread from India to the Middle East and eventually west, with Christian monasticism following in its footsteps in the areas where Emperor Ashoka sent missions. The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male bhikkhu assembly and the female bhikkhuni assembly. Initially consisting only of males, it grew to include females after the Buddha's stepmother, Mahaprajapati, asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhuss. In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. A bhikkhu in Pali or Bhikshu in Sanskrit, first ordains as a Samanera (novice) for a year or more. Novices often ordain at a young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts, but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full Bhikkhu, is usually given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Bhikkhunis follow a similar progression, but are required to live as Samaneras for a longer periods of time- typically five years. The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline. [edit] Christian monasticismMain article: Christian monasticism
Monasticism in Christianity provided the origins of the words "monk" and "monastery" which comprises several diverse forms of religious living that are in response to the call of Jesus of Nazareth to follow him. It began to develop early in the history of the Church, modeled upon Old and New Testament examples and ideals, but not mandated as an institution in the Scriptures. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Christian monasticism is a way of religious living (also called the "counsels of perfection") that is being embraced as a vocation from God out of a desire to attain eternal life in his presence. During his Sermon on the Mount on the Beatitudes (the right way of living according to the law of God), Jesus exhorted the large crowd listening to him to be "perfect as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matthew 5:48). When speaking to his men, Jesus also extended an invitation to celibacy to those "to whom it has been given" (Matthew 19:10–12); and when asked what else is required in addition to observing the Commandments to "enter into eternal life", he advised to sell all earthly possessions in favour of the poor and to follow him, "if you wish to be perfect" (cf. Matthew 19:16–22 = Mark 10:17–22 = Luke 18:18–23). Already in the New Testament there is evidence of Christian monastic living, namely the service rendered by the Widows and the Virgins. Eventually, first in Syria and then in Egypt, Christians began to feel called also to eremitic monastic living (in the spirit of the "Desert Theology" of the Old Testament for the purpose of spiritual renewal and return to God). Saint Anthony the Great is cited by Athanasius as one of these early "Hermit monks". Starting in Egypt, this gave rise to cenobitic monasticism as it is mainly known in the West. Especially in the Middle East eremitic monasticism continued to be common until the decline of Syrian Christianity in the late Middle Ages. But not everybody is fit for solitary life, and numerous cases of hermits becoming mentally unstable are reported.[citation needed] The need for some form of organized spiritual guidance was obvious; and around 318 Saint Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian cenobitic monastery. Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable monasteries of the East include:
In the West, the most significant development occurred when the rules for monastic communities were written, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first. The precise dating of the Rule of the Master is problematic; but it has been argued on internal grounds that it antedates the so-called Rule of Saint Benedict created by Benedict of Nursia for his monastery in Monte Cassino, Italy (c. 529), and the other Benedictine monasteries he himself had founded (cf. Order of St Benedict). It would become the most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and is still in use today. The Augustinian Rule, due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, chiefly the Canons Regular.Around the 12th century, the Franciscan, Carmelite, Dominican, Servite Order(see Servants of Mary) and Augustinian mendicant orders chose to live in city convents among the people instead of secluded in monasteries. Today new expressions of Christian monasticism, many of which ecumenical, are developing in places such as the Bose Monastic Community in Italy, the Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem throughout Europe, and the Taizé Community in France, and the mainly Evangelical Protestant New Monasticism movement of America. See also: Coptic monasticism and Eastern Christian monasticism
[edit] Hindu monasticismIn their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism (sanyāsa). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity, celibacy, detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God.[1] A Hindu monk is called a sanyāsī, sādhu, or swāmi.[2] A nun is called a sanyāsini, sadhavi, or swāmini. Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs.[3] It is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide sadhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain.[4] A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally, Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for a small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut. A Sadhu's vow of renunciation typically forbids him from:
See also: Dashanami Sampradaya
[edit] Islam and monasticismWhile many Muslims do not believe in monasticism (emphasizing the Qur'anic injunction [Qur'an 57:27] in which Allah says that monasticism is a man-made practice that is not divinely prescribed), various Muslim Sufi orders, or "tariqas" encourage practices that resemble those of monastic brotherhoods in other faiths. Dervishes—initiates of Sufi orders—believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. Many of the dervishes are mendicant ascetics who have taken the vow of poverty. Though some of them are beggars by choice, others work in common professions; many Egyptian Qadirites, for example, are fishermen. All genuine dervish brotherhoods trace their origins from two of the close companions of Muhammad, Ali ibn Abu Talib and Abu Bakr. They differ from spiritual brotherhoods of Christianity in that they usually do not live together in a 'monastery' setting; it is actually a stipulation that they have families, and earn an ethical living. Whirling dance, practiced by the Mevlevi order in Turkey, is just one of the physical methods to try to reach religious ecstasy (majdhb) and connection with Allah. Rif'ai, in their mystical states, apparently skewer themselves without engendering any harm. Other groups include the Shadhili, a gnosis based order who practice the 'hadra' or 'presence', a dance-like breathing exercise involving the repetition of divine names. All genuine brotherhoods and subgroups chant verses of Qur'an, and must follow their form of sharia, or sacred law. Traditionally monks in Sufism have been known as fakirs. This term has also been applied to Hindu monks. [edit] Jain monasticismMain article: Jain monasticism
Jainism has two branches, and each has a slightly different take on monasticism. Digambara monks do not wear clothing. Digambaras believe that practice represents a refusal to give in to the body's demands for comfort and private property—only Digambara ascetics are required to forsake clothing. Digambara ascetics have only two possessions: a peacock feather broom and a water gourd. They also believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. As a result, of the around 6000 Jain nuns, barely 100 are Digambaras. The Shvetambaras are the other main Jainist sect. Svetambaras, unlike Digambaras, neither believe that ascetics must practice nudity, nor do they believe that women are unable to obtain moksha. Shvetambaras are commonly seen wearing face masks so that they do not accidentally breathe in and kill small creatures. [edit] Monasticism in other religions
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Pages in category "Monastic rules"The following 3 pages are in this category, out of 3 total. This list may not reflect recent changes (learn more). CR
4. THE MONASTIC RULES In the table: 'Ancient Monasticism', there are * against some names, they represent books. These are some of the monastic rules; for the Rule of St Benedict is not the only rule. There were many rules in ancient monasticism. Not all of them have survived, we know about twenty-five of them. It is a good idea to see how the Rule of St Benedict is related to all these rules.
CLASSIFICATION Some rules are what we could call 'Mother-Rules', because they were written before all the others and are independent of each other. The Rules written later are more or less inspired by them.
Among the latter, some are more important. In the first generation we find the influence of Cassian's Institutes; they are not a monastic rule, but they describe, for the cenobites of Gaul, the observances inspired both by Pachomius and by the hermits of the desert. In the second generation we find a very important rule from which St Benedict drew a lot of inspiration: it is written by an unknown person called 'the Master'.
After St Benedict, there are three more generations of rules which will be inspired by it. All of them are from Gaul or Italy. THEIR LENGTH These monastic rules are of different lengths. The longest is the Rule of the Master, if we take only that part of the Rule of Basil which Benedict knew (as we shall see in the chapter on Basil), the only part on our table. But if we take the rule of Basil in its totality, it is the longest by far. The rule of Benedict is the third longest. All the others are shorter than the rule of Benedict and, with one exception, the longest of them are less than half its length. Among the others some are very short. In Table 5 in Book 2 (pink paper) the shortest rule is used as a unit of measurement. THEIR CONTENT The content of these rules is very variable. The three Mother-Rules afford a good example of their diversity.
Among the other rules, those of the Master and of Benedict resemble those of Basil and Augustine since they contain precise regulations but a theological and spiritual reflection show the reason for the regulations. DIFFERENT EMPHASES All deal with monks living in common. However some of them are marked by the eremitical ideal of Lower Egypt; what counts most of all is the master-disciple relationship, the relationship between brothers takes second place. One could say that they develop a vertical cenobitism. This is the case with the writings of Cassian and the Rule of the Master. Others give first place to fraternal relationships, insisting on the life of the community, on the communion of persons according to the ideal outlined in the Acts of the Apostles 2:44: "All the believers lived together and had everything in common", and 4:32: "The group of believers had a single heart and soul and nobody called any of their possessions their own, but all things were held in common." These rules could be said to portray a horizontal cenobitism. Such are the rules of Basil and Augustine. In Table 4 we can see how Benedict is specially andsimultaneously influenced by one rule of vertical cenobitism, that of the Master, and by another of horizontal cenobitism, that of Augustine. If we recall chapter 73 of his Rule, after he mentions the Lives of the Fathers he recommends that we read the Conferences and Institutes of Cassian (vertical cenobitism), and the Rule of Basil ( horizontal cenobitism). This feature is an indication of the balance which characterises his Rule, a mark of his discretion. The BIBLIOGRAPHY will be given with each author studied.
THE WORD "MONK" The meanings of this word
are rich and distinctive.
4. THE MONASTIC RULES REVISION 1) What is a 'mother-rule' and a 'daughter-rule'? 2) What differences do we find in their content? 3) And in their emphases? 4) Where does the Rule of St Benedict belong in the classification 'mother-rule' and 'daughter-rule'? In length? In its content? In its emphasis? 5)What is the origin of the word 'Monk'? In what sense is it used at the beginning of monasticism? What is its deepest meaning?
4. THE MONAS TIC RULES REVISION ANSWERS 1) What is a 'mother-rule' and a 'daughter-rule'? The Mother-rules are the source of the others. They are independent from each other, and the rules which came later were inspired by them. 2) What differences do we find in their content? Differences may be in the compilation of commandments to do or not to do certain things, with very little spiritual content (Pachomius); or on the contrary a spiritual reflection on the Gospel as found in St Basil. 3)And in their emphases? Some of them are influenced by the eremitical life of Lower Egypt, and insist on the relationship of master-disciple (vertical cenobitism); others are strongly cenobitic, with emphasis on the community, the communion of persons (horizontal cenobitism). 4)Where does the Rule of St Benedict belong in the classification 'mother-rule' and 'daughter-rule'? In length? In its content? In its emphasis? The Rule of St Benedict is among the daughter-rules; there were other daughter-rules before it and afterwards. In length, there are two which are longer, those of Basil and the Master, but it is longer than all the rest. In content, it unites precise regulations with spiritual theology. In emphasis, it is remarkably balanced, inspired both by vertical and horizontal cenobitism. 5)What is the origin of the word 'Monk'? In what sense is it used at the beginning of monasticism? What is its deepest meaning? The word 'monk' comes from the greek 'Monakos' which means 'alone'. In the beginning it stood for the ascetic who was not married and lived alone. Cenobites did not use this word.However it quickly acquird a deeper meaning: a person who is 'one' in his inmost being. It means a person united within himself, a person with a single gaze, a single desire. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Western Monastic Rules
Rule of Saint Augustine (based on Augustine's Letter 211)
Rule of St. Benedict (1) Rule of Saint ColumbaCistercian Constitution (Charta Caritatas)Rule of St. Francis (hypothetical reconstruction of 1st Rule)
Rule of 1223 (1)
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Join Date: Sep 2000
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Dear David and others,
If you are interested in reading the 'rules' of St Basil, both the lesser and the longer are found in an accessible English translation under the volume title A Life Pleasing To God. I cannot recall the author / editor of the volume at the moment; but it should be relatively easy to locate. The same volume includes also a fair amount of good introductory material. INXC, Matthew ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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