2005-5-10:  Old Norse Cults

The term ‘cult’ often refers to the religious practice that is outside the accepted norms or society.  However, in Old Norse society the ancient ‘cults’ were very much a part of everyday life.  In the pre-Christian era, the early pagans worshipped many gods and goddesses and many lesser deities.  Their polytheistic beliefs were present everywhere: in the home, on the battlefield, in festivals, and in many traditions.  Even late into history and during their Christianization, the Germanic peoples held onto their pagan religions; and while many of the follows of certain gods practiced brutal sacrifices, most of the worshipers were harmless that could keep with their heathen tradition along with the novel Christian beliefs.  There are a few special gods that deserve notice among the many sects of the mythology; in particular the worship of Odin, Thor, Freyr, and individual local spirits called the Disir.

            Worship for the Norsemen involved showing their reverence through prayer, sacrifice, and other practices.  They had sacred places dedicated to the gods, prior to elaborate temples, which were mostly groves and forest clearings where the gods were thought to reside.  In these sacred places worshippers prayed to the gods in a gesture involving bending and looking skyward, folding hands and uncovering their heads, although prostrating one’s self is also characteristic of Christian peoples.  However, sacrifices or offerings were the best form or worship for the heathen gods.    The designated sacrificial house was known as a “hof” and the term “blot” is associated with the Germanic sacrifices, both live and materialistic; animals and humans were sacrificed to the gods, the latter often voluntarily as part of a ceremony. Reasons for sacrifices were either to implore a deity for help, to give thanks, in celebration of a festival, appease the anger of a god, or as a sin offering used for atonement.  These atonement human sacrifices can be used to purge a crime whereas animal sacrifices are given as thanks; the flesh and blood of the animal later consumed by the worshippers.  Private sacrifices usually consisted of fruits, grains, and other material goods; communal/sacrificial meals usually involved the roasting of animals.  There are also ritual drinking, burnt offerings, symbolic “marriages” between gods and humans, and religious processions involving the images of a particular deity (Grimm).

The cult of Odin is one of the most important sects of the early Germanic religions.  He is the patron god of warriors, magicians, poets and kings, and is seen as the supreme and oldest of the gods with a strong association for royalty; some kings boast their descent from him.  However, even though Odin may be the oldest and highest ranking of gods, he wasn’t necessarily the reigning deity throughout Scandinavia.  Depending on location, other gods such as Thor were given more importance than Odin.  Nevertheless Odin goes by many names such as Allfather and the God of the Slain; there are also numerous place names all over Scandinavia, such as Odense, Denmark and Odensbacken, Sweden that bear his name.  His many worshipers often prayed to him for victory in battle, but were also wary of him during the darkest of nights:  this is because Odin also happens to be a very frivolous god and can smite down any human as he sees fit.   It should be noted that there is a group of worshippers, the Heruli, nomadic Germanic people, who were noted by Tacitus to be worshippers of the god Wodan, another regional name for Odin.  These people had a double ritual of stabbing their victims which consisted of the old and sickly whose bodies were burned on a large funeral pyre.  Offerings to Odin were notably categorized by live sacrifices: human and beast alike, it seemed appropriate to offer blood to the god of warriors and to the slain.  Other contributions to Odin include hanging of prisoners in the name of Wodan, the God of the Hanged, so noted because of his sacrifice for the knowledge of the runes.  This type of offering is characterized by the Cimbri people of ancient Celtic times, where the victims’ throats were bled by old priestesses dressed in white (Davidson 54).  However, worshippers of Odin also gave up their own lives as a sacrifice; a suicidal ritual coinciding with Odin’s self sacrifice for the sake of knowledge.  His symbol is three interlocking triangles (valknut), often referred to as “heart of the slain” or simply “Odin’s knot,” seen on Scandinavian stone carvings, it is said to represent the interlinking of the nine worlds, where Odin affects them all (Davidson 147).  Such was Odin’s influence of many people that the fourth day of the modern week is dedicated to him: Woden’s day to become our Wednesday. 

The next and equally as important sect was the cult to Thor.  He is the patron god of the sky, weather, fecundity, and justice.  Also the god for the common people and artisans, he was prayed to in search or protection and fertility.  He had many worshippers in various locations around Scandinavia and Northern Europe, such as Thundersley in Essex, who have been known give more praise to Thor than Odin in terms of importance, making Thor their principle god of worship; he is particular favored by the Vikings and lasted long in Western Europe.  One particular worshiper, Thorolf Mostrarskegg, who was known for starting a new settlement by throwing a high pillar from Thor’s temple overboard, allowing it float and approach the shore.  Wherever the post landed supposedly was where he established his colony (Davidson 78).  The high seat pillars were characteristic of Thor’s temples, which were heavily adorned with gold and gilded; inside could be found a chariot pulled by Thor’s goats.  One such ritual involved the pulling of the golden chariot, whereby the rumbling noise signified the rolling thunder associated by Thor.  Unlike Odin, offerings to Thor were less violent and bloody.  Although there may be some live sacrifices of animals, offerings mostly consisted of meat, bread, and mead; including the practice by the Norse of “minne-drinking,” or “remembering a loved one.”  At grand festivals, gods were offered large containers of ale to be remembered, usually left for Thor who, according to Grimm, is said to appear at weddings (59).  He is also associated with trees and is characterized by the oak; King Volsung implemented a living tree into his hall, a custom seen in many Norse homes.  However, Thor is best known for his hammer, “Mjollnir”; it became especially important during the time of Christianization, where worshipers were able to alternate between the Christian crosses and the hammer amulet.  Likewise the swastika was a symbol for the sun-wheel or, more primitively, fire; since Thor is seen as the god of the sky and thunder, it would seem logical that the swastika would be connected with him.  Similarly important as Odin, Thor was also dedicated a date of his own; in today’s modern week Thor’s Day has become Thursday.

Another important deity is the cult of Freyr.  He is the patron god of human fertility and love, his images often portraying a distinct phallic figure, but worshippers often turn to him for peace, prosperity and happiness.  Freyr, or otherwise known as Frey, also has numerous place names found all over Scandinavia, in particular, Sweden.  In fact the nobility, the Ynglings have declared their descent from Yngvi-Frey, where Frey means “lord.”  In his cult, the most common symbols are the golden bristled boar and the ship; the latter can be connected to the practice of ship-burials which was best remembered by King Frodi and his descendants.  In particular, Helgi the Lean was said to throw a boar and sow overboard, much like Thor’s high pillars, to guide him to land.  Unlike Odin the battle cult, Freyr is known as the fertility cult and weapons and violence were banned from his temples.  His cult included songs and actions that were typically sexual in nature; including religious prostitution and orgies, although it is said that cult is “typically Asiatic” (Branston 134).  In general, worshippers of Freyr dedicate domesticated animals to him, in particular oxen and horses; horses being especially important such as in the Manes of Frey, who were not allowed to ridden by any mortal man creating a form of horse cult found in Norway and Iceland.  However, there are also accounts of “Froblod,” or human sacrifices made in the name of Freyr, which were accompanied by ceremonies involving “unmanly” or effeminate actions made by the worshippers.  There are also offerings of wives, a practice known in Sweden, in which a priestess of the cult was presented to Freyr and expected to actually live as if truly married.  Despite his close connection with sexuality, during transition to Christianity Freyr was likened to the image of Christ, his close connection to being both divine and human-like (Dumézil 78).    

On a more personal level, there is also the cult of the Disir.  The disir weren’t necessarily any specific goddesses, but rather were a collective group of individual home deities who were mostly ancestors and spirits.  Although some goddesses such as Freya could be included in this group.  She did, however, become a sort of central goddess figure for the disir, although the whole cult itself is based on a more personal, family level.  These goddesses and spirits were the patrons of the home, the individual, and to families of who prayed for good health, prosperities, and minor blessings.  These attendant spirits are said to take on characteristics of their intended, their virtues being represented by animals:  crafty foxes or brave bulls (Munch 31).  To them sacrifices were made, called “disablot” and festivals held in market squares with a court assembly called a “disading”; in particular, Munch mentions a February celebration called “Distingen” was a notable event.  Occasionally the ancestors of distinguished families become regional disir, rather than just a family spirit, principally the Haloigja family, where certain females’ names are esteemed with place names (33).  The Disarsal near Uppsala was once the center of the disir cult worshipping the goddesses. 

The significance of these deities is evident in their practice by their worshipers.  Cities, towns, even children are named after the gods.  While the gods may have temples of their own by their worshippers, there was one especially important location which serviced multiple gods.  This temple at Uppsala paid honor to Odin, Thor, and Freyr where plenty of sacrifices, ceremonies, and festivals were held before its destruction by King Ingold I during the transition to Christianity.  Nevertheless, since the new religion arrived rather recently to Scandinavia with relatively little national warfare, the old heathenistic religions were able to survive for so many years. Despite the fact that the different gods could vary so different amongst themselves, they still had their many bands of followers among the Norse peoples; Odin the bloody god, Thor the protector, Freyr the prosperous, and the local disir for good luck. 

2005-4-29:  Collection of Folk Stories

Story telling is an interesting past time spent with family.  Within my own, it’s a great bonding experience, often recanting the older generation’s life adventures and memories:  tales of the first generation coming to the states, learning the lifestyle, living the American dream.  For many immigrants the United States can be a complete culture shock, but one must learn to adjust to the society rather quickly and most of the time the best method is learning from one’s mistakes.  As I was growing up, I was constantly reminded of the difficulties that my relatives had to face when they moved to America and though these stories have since become ingrained in my memory, all I can do is laugh at the awkwardness of the situations.  I can never really know what it’s like, to go through what they did, but their lives are not that far off from my own.

My family members were not the stereotypical immigrants; they were not poor or uneducated, uncultured or suffering from language barriers, but rather they were all professionals, even doctors.  However, the lifestyle in the Philippines cannot compare to the States, what may seem humble and modest in our standards could be upscale or expensive for immigrants.  However, even for other families, coming to America can be difficult.  I have listened to some learning experiences from a few friends whose grandparents migrated years ago.  I have also interviewed my parents, a few friends, an aunt, and was told stories of their own experiences as well as those of my god parents, Tito Boy and his wife Lita who immigrated to America back in the seventies.  Some of the following stories may sound awkward or the quoted text is grammatically incorrect.  However, these are how they were presented to me, some from memory with only a few reminders, others presented first hand by the informant.  Whether any of these tales are true, one cannot say; I can hardly affirm the validity of these experiences more than I can take them with a grain of salt. 

It all began on the West Coast, the first stop for all Filipinos, where we all start off as tourists.  For immigrants coming to the States common terminology can be misunderstood; despite the fact that almost all Filipinos are bilingual, speaking both English and their native Filipino dialect, English grammar is very different.  For the Filipino, the idea is to get the point or idea across, rather than focus on syntax and structure.  In one such tale, my godparents were touring the U.S., visiting areas, and taking pictures of various places.  Wanting a photograph of the both of them against a notable background, my godmother approached a police officer to take their picture.  “Excuse me sir, but do you mind shooting us?” she asked, meaning “shoot” their picture.  The perplexed officer, thinking they meant using his gun, politely declined “shooting” the two, questioning the motive of these two immigrant’s request.  Sensing the officer’s confusion, my godfather said to my godmother in the Visayan dialect, “Hindi ka gid maruhong¹.  Here, I’ll ask.”  My godfather, proud of his English skills approached the policeman again and asked, “Excuse me officer, but could you please shot us?”

            This was not the end of their adventures, however.  As my godparents were still touring, somewhere in the downtown area of Los Angeles, their daughter had given them a cell phone to use in case they needed anything if they came upon an emergency.  They had never been to such a large metropolis and were exploring L.A. by themselves, so my god-sister decided to call and check up on the two. 

“Hey dad, tell me where you are now,” asked my god-sister.

“Oh, we’re here in L.A. of course,” replied her dad. 

“I meant where are you in the city.  Look around and tell me what you’re near.”

“Well I’m on the corner of two roads, but I don’t know which ones.”

“Look up at the corner post and tell me what corner, dad.”

My godfather looked up at the post and replied, “Well, the street is a little odd, but I’m standing in the corner of walk and don’t walk.”  Indeed, it took awhile for him to realize that he was only looking at the pedestrian sign and not the name of the street.

It wasn’t just my god parents that experienced many awkward adventures.  My dad had also told me a story of his friend also traveling the U.S. Before leaving for Texas, USA, this family friend had heard that everything in Texas is real big because it is the biggest state in the Union. Having that in mind, he was already thinking big. So, when he arrived in Texas, he saw big tall buildings, when he arrived in his hotel he was amazed how big the hotel lobby was, and when got his room he was awed to the largeness of his room. At this point, he realized that he had only peanuts in the plane so he went to the hotel restaurant. He was again amazed how big the restaurant was. As he sat on a big table, even the waiter was a large man who came over and asked for his order.  He asked for a steak and fries and to his astonishment the steak he got was big as his plate and a mountain full of fries. After a sumptuous dinner, he decided to go to the hotel bar. He ordered a bottle of whiskey and again he was surprised that he was given a gallon of whiskey. As he was already getting drunk, he decided to go to the men’s room to answer the call of nature. He asked the waiter for direction to the men’s room. The waiter said, “Go straight on that corridor and turn right, walk a few steps then left and on your right is the men’s room.” However, our friend was a little bit tipsy, that he got confused and ended up in the swimming pool in which he fell in to it… Now thinking that everything in Texas was big, he was shouting, “Please don’t flush. Please don’t flush!” because he thought he just fell into a large toilet.  Although people think impossible situations happen while they’re inebriated, sometimes I it is hard for me to believe the stories my father tells are entirely true.

            This time, my aunt was telling me about when she visited Texas.  She had also heard that everything is big in Texas, but she never really thought much of it.  So she and a friend were extremely hungry and went out to eat dinner at a sit-down restaurant.  They ordered each a plate of spaghetti and an order of barbeque.  In the Philippines, “barbeque” is basically bite-sized marinated meat on a stick cooked on a grill similar to shish-kabobs, and served with rice; they were not expecting the pulled barbeque pork on a bun that is familiar in the U.S.  My aunt was convinced that the cook had given them the wrong order and even began arguing with the waitress, describing to her what barbeque is.  Their disappointment was soon replaced by surprise as two huge platters of spaghetti enough to feed a large family.  My aunt tells me she didn’t know that is the way they served their pasta:  as a huge serving that you help yourself to, rather than individual plates.  After unsuccessfully trying to persuade the waitress that she was wrong, the two tried to save face and eat as much as they could; unfortunately, in the U.S. a “small” is generally the size of any other country’s “regular” or even “large”. 

            When it comes to ordering food in a new place, sometimes it’s best to order something tried and true.  For instance, when my uncle came to the states as a young bachelor, he came to a sit down restaurant and was amazed by the food selection on the menu.  There were so many new foods, but he claims he was too proud to ask for help (although in my opinion I know that he’s self conscious about his accent) and was having a hard time choosing.  So when the waiter came to ask for his order, my uncle over heard someone from another table order a common dish, for instance “hamburger and fries”.  My uncle quickly responded, “Yes, yes! I’ll have the hamburger and fries.  The hamburger and fries.”  That being his first purchased meal in the states, it can be a little hard to break habits so every time he would go out to eat, the only thing he would order is hamburger and fries.  Always hamburger and fries.  It is common to repeat answers around new people and new places².  Sometimes I wonder if my aunt should have taken his advice and kept ordering the same thing, or simply copy someone else when eating out.  It surely would have spared her the long debate with that waitress.

Unfortunately for my mom, however, she didn’t have the benefit of harmless faux pas.  There were plenty of times, early in my mother’s nursing career, where she had to deal a hearty blend of cantankerous patients and mixed messages.  Before my mom became a neo-natal nurse at D.C General, she tells me that she worked with some elderly patients, some of whom can be a combination of both bitter resentment and some slight mental challenges.  One night while she was doing her rounds and assisting this one old woman, the patient asked my mom to fetch her pocketbook.  In the Philippines, a pocketbook is an actual pocket-book (a small novel) and the term used for a purse would be “shoulder-bag” or “hand-bag.”  Needless to say, my mother searched as hard as she could for a small book that didn’t exist and apologized for not finding her pocketbook.  At this the old woman got upset and screamed, “Who stole my pocketbook?!  Where is my pocketbook?” The patient was getting out of hand to the point where orderlies were called and were about to tranquilize her.  “I’m sorry ma’am, but I’ve searched all the drawers and there is no book to be found,” implored my mother.  Luckily another nurse was nearby and was able to locate the woman’s purse.  She understood that my mom was a new nurse at the clinic and had to explain to her that a “pocketbook” is really a purse. 

            Nevertheless, my mother also found that services are also different here in the States.  In one story, my mother had finally gotten a car and driver’s license.  For a long time she had been using public transportation to commute from our house to her work in D.C., which wasn’t too bad of a distance, but rush hour traffic took its toll on drivers.  As the tale goes, my mother had to get her first gallon of gas for her vehicle and stopped off at a nearby gasoline station.  Unfortunately for my mom, her only experience with gas stations was back in the Philippines.  There, all of the stations were only full-service so she never really learned how to pump gas.  And so it goes, she pulls up to the station and sits in the car, waiting for an attendant to come help her.  At some point she begins wondering what is taking so long, until the attendant asks if there is something wrong. 

“I’m waiting for my gasoline to be pumped,” replied my mom. 

“I’m sorry ma’am but this is a self serve station.”

“A what?  Oh… I’m sorry, but I’m afraid I don’t know how to pump gas into my car.”  Fortunately for my mom, the attendant was kind enough to assist her and teach her how to pump her car.  To this day, she is very thankful that the worker was nice enough to leave his booth; she learned soon enough, however, that America is built on a society of independence and a “do-it-yourself” mentality. 

However, times do change as much as cultures differ between countries, and experiences between generations can greatly change the views of social norms.  For instance, the family of a close friend of mine started migrating here around the time of World War II.  Indeed, these were difficult times for everybody and values learned during this time are hard to give up; in particular, her grandmother had grown up during the times of the concentration camps and her parents were of the traditional conventions.  As such, she was never taught in the area of sexual education, for it topic was quite taboo as well for the fact that it was not exactly the most important subject to deal with at the time.  The story goes that my friend’s grandmother had always thought that men were infested with sexually transmitted disease, since of course they were all “scoundrels” and were very sexually promiscuous.  She thought that anything that a man touches would be infected and she could catch whatever disease simply by touching the infected object.  For instance, when riding on a bus and no seats were available to her, some man might offer her his seat.  She would politely refuse and remain standing, for fear that the public bus seat would be covered in STD’s.  It wasn’t until her daughter, my friend’s stepmother, was already an adult and began attending nursing that she learned the true nature of sexually transmitted diseases.  The daughter was casually discussing some topic in her nursing class when somehow the topic of diseases came up.  The concerned mother promptly warned her daughter of the sicknesses she could pick up off the street from men, as in directly off inanimate things like the street or even a bus seat.  Laughing, my friend’s stepmother informed her that such diseases are contracted from physical contact, not indirectly through objects³ like bus seats.  It is even a wonder that her mother even knew how babies were conceived and had a few children of her own.  Nevertheless, the way that the mother grew up, in a different time and place, so differed from the daughter’s that sometimes it is hard to find any common ground between them.

So far, these stories have been accounts from adults’ point of views, however I have managed to find some first hand accounts of learning to grow up in new cultures.  A fellow brother of mine from the service fraternity was familiar with the military life and was constantly being relocated from place to place, and despite the constant moving he still faced difficult in each new location when he was growing up.  He has lived in Virginia, Spain, Florida, Italy, and Puerto Rico before settling in Maryland for the past five years.  I focused on a major institutional aspect of his recent life:  school and education.  One of his earliest memories was when he lived in Italy, about the age of nine years old, just starting the school years.  He had recently just moved there, after previously living in Florida, and asked his mom, “Do I have to speak Italian in school to learn? I am so scared. I can’t speak Italian."  He didn’t know that he would be attending the Department of Defense School for the military children, but the even the buses, he says, are unlike the American school buses; rather they were much like our coach buses and some were even double-deckers.  However, his greatest shock was when he returned back to the U.S. after six years, around the early years of high school.  He was transferring from Puerto Rico to Maryland, but his mother had done all the talking and paperwork before he arrived at the school; but since he was coming from Puerto Rico, they had assumed that he spoke little English and placed him in ESOL⁴ and English standard courses.  He came in the first day of classes and they were learning nouns and verbs, speaking to him as if he were still in grammar school.  He was thinking at the time, “I was reading Richard III and Beowulf just two months ago and writing four or five research papers that are near college level, an equivalent to ENGL101, and they reduce me to elementary grammar.”  So he first confronted the ESOL teacher and spoke to her in perfect English, completely stunning her that he was from Puerto  Rico and didn’t just speak Spanish.  Apparently she was unaware that he had come from a military school where they speak English all the time and was immediately transferred to the counselor to be placed in more advanced classes.

I guess I took for granted all that I have lived through, growing up entirely in the States.  When I was first contemplating the topic for my collection paper, I tried to think of different types of stories that I’ve heard over the years.  At first, immigration stories didn’t occur to me as a topic simply because I have been exposed to so often in everyday life, that I simply over looked it; but now that I look back, I realize that almost everyday I learn something new about the life of my parents that I never knew about; even just random comments in the kitchen that begin with, “Oh there was this one time…” but I never think much of it, but it’s that everybody has an interesting history;  their families had to come to America in some way or another.    Despite the fact that many of the tall tales that my parents weave for me, I still enjoy the entertainment nevertheless, because the way I see it, in spite of all the hardship that my family has gone through to become successful, I still realize that it is important to look back and laugh

2004-11-18:  Machiavelli and Virtue

Machiavelli’s idea of virtú does not necessarily mean the same as the English word “virtue”, which means moral goodness and righteousness.  While being benevolent are honorable traits, Machiavelli refers to virtú as qualities that lead to a prince’s success.  In fact, he lists several men in time –such as Agothocles and Borgia—who possessed this virtú that came to power by criminal means, but are nowhere near being morally good.  Nonetheless, these sorts or principalities cannot exist without the respect of the people.  In The Prince, Machiavelli states that, “(y)et it cannot be called prowess to kill fellow-citizens, to betray friends, to be treacherous, pitiless, irreligious.  These ways can win a prince power, but not glory (28).”  In this way, it is important to understand what Machiavelli means by his definition of virtú.

            Virtú according to Machiavelli are personal traits of men that lead them to power, through fortune or prowess.  He states that, “if a ruler comes to power by his own strength, his state is more likely to be permanent […] By contrast, a prince raised to power by chance … will fall at the first turn of fortune (Wilcox 163).”  Fortune is unpredictable and represents that which is outside human control and cannot dependable.    This is why virtú would be so important: it is something that can be directly controlled by man.  Machiavelli admires this willpower against the fortune in “Republican Dignity” in The Discourses, where he applauds the ability of many civilizations to withstand victories and defeats through determination.  Such is the nature of Machiavelli’s virtú.

            In regards to normal virtue and the behaviors of a prince, Machiavelli does honor good qualities in a man that gain the people’s approval in order to create a stable state.  Benevolence, while a good trait to have, needs to be used wisely in addition to occasional punishment.  Again, he emphasizes the need to lay heavy hand on the people in order to keep control.  It is truly a matter of knowing when and how to behave badly to maintain power over principalities.

            This concept of virtue according to Machiavelli differed somewhat from earlier humanist ideas.  Instead of emphasizing all that is morally good and righteous, Machiavelli’s outlook is a bit more cynical and promotes brute strength, cunning, vigor, and excellence.  Instead of focusing on good qualities that would be ideal to have, Machiavelli now promotes virtues that, in a realistic world, a prince should have to be an effective leader.  Here, the idea of virtue is not a lofty concept but qualities that can be applied in context to real situations of governing power. 

2004-10-6:  Philosophers on Human Nature

Through the ages, humans have always sought to make sense of the world around them, right down to human nature itself.  Philosophers spend their time thinking: "where did we come from? What is our purpose?  What does it mean to succeed?  Perhaps, better yet:  Why do we do the things we do?"  Both the Classic writers (Plato, Aristotle, Seneca, Cicero, etc) and the writers of the Bible have tried to answer these musings. 

Both views discuss various topics of interest for humanists: aspects of virtue, wisdom, morality and human nature.  Each offered their knowledge to everyday living, in particular how people were to live in society; in other words their views on the rules, government and politics because for people in the complex societies of their times, the state and commonplace social interactions were a part of everyday life.  Nowadays the practical knowledge of the Classics and the Bible still serve as the basis for today's humanists.  Moreover, while both motives may somewhat diverge.  As far as views of the state, ideas such as the rules regulating marriage and society --similar, as they may seem-- have quite different motives for the two points of views.

Take the basic idea of government:  Who can participate?  In ancient times the basic theme of Athenian Democracy is that each man is equal in the sense that with him is the natural ability to make logical judgments to lead --though this did not n include young men and especially not women.    Such confidence in human's own ability is restricted to the Classic, everything is possible through God and that we cannot rely on our own flawed ability.  However, in the New Testament every person is said to be equal:  man or women, rich or poor.  However, they never really discuss participation in government.  The leaders, lawgivers and officials all seem to be outsiders here, just people to command the masses, from King Herod to Governor Pilate; the theme is the ultimate ruler: Jesus.

However, the writers of the Bible did not mean to ignore the authority of the current leaders.  In fact, in St. Paul's letter to the Romans, St. Paul spent the majority of chapter 13 on the submission to authorities.  The logic here is that the power of the leaders was created by God and thusly must be followed.  Therefore, the Christian view implies that it lies in the supreme ordination of God, unlike the Classic's view that the ability to lead and rule is innate in human nature and through nature comes the state.

According to the Classics, the reason for the state is said to be, "for the common good of all people."  Specifically, Aristotle defines the state as "an association of similar persons whose aim is the best life possible (34)."  Essentially, the need for survival because it is important that the people within it cooperate by its laws in order to live comfortably lest they be condemned by society become like a man "mad on war (23)." No, the basis here is not the will of God but rather the basic order of nature that leads to the natural hierarchy of society: from within the household of man and wife, to master and slave, to eventually the overall ordained structure of the state. 

Both societies –the Classics and the Bible’s—accepted the idea of a slave subordinate to its master;  but this idea might not agree with more modern humanists where slavery is no longer an accepted norm.   Nevertheless, this dominant/submission trait of the social hierarchy is seen in other aspects of society --besides the people versus authority-- in the basic unit of the household.  Both sources agree that a household consists of a man and his wife, but that is where the similarities change.  The Classics see this relationship as another “ruler” and the “ruled” where the man has dominance over the wife.   Even in the Old Testament, God says to the first woman Eve, “Your desire will be for your husband, and he will rule over you. (Gen. 3:16).”   However, the New Testament has a more egalitarian approach.  In St. Paul’s First Letter to the Corinthians, he says, “The wife’s body does not belong to her alone but also to her husband.  In the same way, the husband’s body does not belong to him alone but also to his wife (7:4).”  Here, both partners are seen as equals rather than leaders and followers, a major change in thought from the previous way of living. 

Indeed, the Classics and the Bible influenced the world around them, politically and philosophically.  The ancient western writers –Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero—affected their world directly in politics.  Many were officers and lawmakers themselves, others were largely influential to people in those areas.  The writers of the Bible appealed to the masses, the common people, creating a widespread influential area, rather than targeting just the elite.  Although many ideas found in the Bible confirm many Classic writings –such as moral goodness and brotherly love—they challenged the concept by shifting the view from wisdom and nature to that of salvation and God.  This is one of the differences between the Classics and the writers of the Bible:  the overall commandment over law and order, whether it is nature or God.   Nevertheless, these points of views do not have to be entirely separate.  In later centuries, both concepts would be integrated into modern humanist ideals on the dignity of man. 

2004-11-11:  Petrach and Antiquity

There are a number of reasons why Petrarch was interested in antiquity.  For one thing, it was because he was very displeased with his own contemporaries.  He felt that people of his time did not live up to their potentials that they were too concerned with money and not with bettering themselves.  At his “conversion” on Mt. Ventoux, Petrarch soon finds the value of studying that it lead to the personal growth rather than just “to know.”  Petrarch saw the Classics as a (source) for becoming more human; essentially, they told us how to live.  In his mind, Petrarch believed that simply possessing a book; he could somehow possess the author.  This reverence to simple stated words was novel concept to early renaissance scholars.  In fact, it is said that by recounting the moral conduct of the Classics, Petrarch hoped to influence such behavior in the people of his time.  Quite simply, the philosophies and moral code of the ancients inspired Renaissance thinkers to better themselves.

However, the influence of the Christian church greatly affected the study of the Classics.  Salutati, in his letter “In Defense of Liberal Studies” supported the value of Virgil citing the harmlessness of the non-Christian writers.  He seeks to find some examples to which one can apply to a Christian life:  he states, “I examine diligently to see if I can find anything that tends toward virtuous and honourable conduct… But, when it is my good fortune to find something harmony with our faith […] I admire it and rejoice in it (195).”  Salutati looks back and points out several non-Christian writing that the Church accepted, such as Job, Seneca, and Cicero.

            In regards to historical context, both men tried to imagine what life was like in the time of the Classics.  According to Wilcox, “Petrarch and his successors considered the ancients to be wise but also human and limited (63).”  This meant that although the ancients had very valuable and timeless ideas, they were still subject to individual biases as well as the situations of their time.  Petrarch understood the value of historical context, as seen when explicitly describing the difference between his modern-day Verona to ancient Rome in his second letter to Cicero.  Salutati also understood the worth of historical context and would examine history in order to justify certain events -- such as in his analysis of Caesar’s death in De Tyranno.  However, Salutati, when looking back at the lives of the Romans, still subjected them to medieval values and principles.  For both men when regarding the way of life for the ancients, Petrarch and Salutati found themselves disappointed with the writers Cicero where most scholars revered him.  Both found a simple man from a different time rather than a timeless hero figure.  There they found an immature, pompous, man too involved in politics.  Petrarch clearly states his disappointment in his first letter to the orator; likewise, Salutati criticizes Cicero in his essay De Tyranno. 

            However, these disappointments did not deter the Renaissance thinkers away from the Classics.  Rather, it brought them closer by convincing them to take a closer look at these ancient writings and to reexamine the old way of thinking.  For medieval scholars, this meant that the works themselves meant nothing and that the general concepts were accepted and unchanging.  The Renaissance humanists believed that one must think of what the author was literally saying in their writings, that by studying the Classic time, the author’s true meaning could be fully understood.

2003:  Essay for the Delegate Costa Scholarship

The first year in college is a monumental experience.  The transition from high school to a post secondary education is a difficult change for many people.  No longer dictated by the obligations of our past lives, the new independence leaves fate in our own hands and often enough we become overwhelmed by the onslaught of responsibilities, opportunities, and freedoms.  For me, this new venue was a formidable one, indeed; but I expected that I would be face many obstacles and prepared to make the change.  I knew that majoring in Zoology and pursuing a life in life sciences would mean long hours and intense academics.  Although at this point in my life, I am still uncertain what career I will choose or what the future will hold, I will always keep my options open and explore every subject that holds my interest. Indeed, attending a large university meant never-ending activities, many opportunities of getting involved, furthering my own curiosity, and the chance of finding new and exciting interests. 

These endeavors not only demonstrate my involvement outside of the classroom but also signify my explorations of new things, my enthusiasm for various subjects, and display my character as a well-rounded practical citizen. Over the past year, I was able to attend various Christian fellowships, learn more about different community services, participate in a unique martial art, and experience many other extracurricular activities which that would shape the way I view the world.  The mixture of the Chi Alpha Christian fellowship and my participation with the University Bible Fellowship strengthened my own Christian faith and yet also piqued my interest in theology, ultimately leading up to my decision to minor in Comparative Religious Studies.  In addition, because of my past involvement in community service, I was interested in pursuing it in college; I learned more about Habitat for Humanity in the D.C. area, but I kept my volunteering to within the College Park area.  Two activities in particular include planting trees for Earth Day and packing lunches for the less fortunate in a program called Snack Pack Attack.  In addition, once I week I would go down to the campus stables and help clean the stalls.  Moreover, while not exactly the most glorious job, I managed to gain experience around the horses and was even able to learn how to ride.  Yet, through all these activities and involvements I still focused on my studies and managed to make the Dean’s List my first semester in college. 

My academic excellence has honored me with my acceptance into Phi Eta Sigma and Alpha Lambda Delta honor societies and The National Soceity of Collegiate Scholars as well as recognition by the National Dean’s List.  Again, I admit the first semester in college was not the easiest; but I was determined to succeed where many others settle for mediocrity.

2003-4-9:  God

                I find it ironic that here I am, writing about God, when in fact I am missing church just to do so.  Not that I don’t enjoy going to church and praying and such.  I just see God as a god that understands my time and needs.  But who is He, anyway?  Well, to the majority of the world, He is the one true God, creator of all things who is almighty and powerful.  Christians, Muslims, Jews, and other religions alike share this basic concept.  This concept of monotheism of one god has evolved over the years.  Early religion was based upon polytheism, or the presence of many gods.  In recent years, various tribal religions believe in many gods, but the most prominent modern polytheistic religion is Hinduism and also other minor religions.  Although Hinduism believes in one supreme God, they also observe various minor gods and goddess (Robinson.)

                So what is the big deal about religion, anyway?  Or shall I ask, "Why?"  Religion, in its early stages, was an attempt to provide explanations for natural phenomena and other unexplainable events: questions such as the source of life or the origin of ill fortune.  In these attempts to explain the world around us, gods and deities became essential parts of society.   Later in history, the early people no longer found a need to worship many gods, such as the Egyptian pharaoh Amenhotep IV, later known as Akhenaton.  Although, it is said by the Christian Classics Ethereal Library, the Egyptian religion was, essentially monotheistic despite the presence of the various gods (Anubis, Isiris, etc).  However, research shows that Amenhotep IV began to institute the worship of the sun god, Aten.  However, monotheism has always had its share of persecution.  Jews, Christians, Muslims, even the pharaoh, were subject to scorn and hatred.  After Amenhotep IV died, his people desecrated his name and destroyed his temple, trying to erase his existence from Egyptian history (“Amenhotep IV”).

                In the 13th century Europe, the image of God became an image of power and fear.  Threats of the Inquisition, both Spanish and Medieval, allowed no thought outside of religion.  God was everything and the church was the head of the state.  This God was a God to fear, not worship and adore.  Religion was a part of everyday life and those in the church ruled the people.  For many years, the Catholic Church terrorized much of Europe until many disillusioned people joined together in rebellion, starting the Protestant Reformation, which brought about new ideas to the people about God and religion.  Views of the church began to change and revolutionized the vigor in God.

                For many people today, institutionalized religion is not as necessary as it might have been in earlier years.  I have asked many of my peers if they go to church and have found that many people feel that it is not important to actually go to church and attend the services in order to get in touch with God.  However, many people take comfort in the unity and support.  Church, to me, isn’t so much about following the right traditions to please God.  No, it is about valuing our customs that define us as Catholics (or Episcopalian or Baptist or whatever religion one may be).  Although I also believe that it is not necessary to attend mass, I feel that one should make an effort to honor the Sabbath, because we cannot forget God in our everyday life and should make the endeavor to honor Him.

                Why do humans feel the need to worship God?  Why do we believe?  While most people interviewed are either unsure why they have chosen their religion or it is due to their parental upbringing, a recent survey shows that a majority of people (28.6 %) believe in God due to the complexity and/or beauty of the universe is so great that some higher power must be responsible.  Among other factors are experiencing God everyday; the feel of comfort and support; the truth of the Bible; the need for something to believe in; were raised in the faith; prayers have been answered; the idea of destiny and God’s intervention; and to account for good and evil in the world (Shermer 249).

                These “needs” of human beings to belong and to believe are essential in our social being.  According to Kushner, people usually find God in times of need or often made aware of Him when we are desperate, perhaps creating a God when we seek hope (15-21.)  What we fail to do, however, is to acknowledge God in those times when we aren’t desperate for an answer (which, I pray, we won’t have to experience in our lives) and to appreciate those times when we are safe and give thanks for what we have.  It really makes me sad to see people who feel that they are somehow “above” the church or don’t have time to even think about the good things in life and yet when they need help, they begin to pray with all their heart.  But I realize that God is a lot more understanding that I am and has the patience and the forgiveness that I lack, much less able to comprehend.  For God isn’t the “strike-me-down-with-a-lightning-bolt” type of God when I do something wrong, nor is He the type to give us direct answers in an instant. 

                The difficult part of explaining God is that everything about Him can’t be described in a way that is comprehendible.  In fact, I can’t even comprehend Him in my own mind.  He is so great, so beyond human reason, that a person can go on and on talking about Him that he or she will never end.  It’s like the concept infinite where numbers just keep going on going forever and never ends or perhaps like the idea of outer space never having an end. 

                Unlike most of my religious peers, I have my own concepts and beliefs outside the mainstream religions and doctrines.  For instance, many people believe in the presence of the devil or evil.  However, I believe that all people are born good and are only tempted to sin because of our own weaknesses.   I don’t believe in the devil that tempts us everywhere we go.  Every person has their own motives when they do things and who are we to judge what goes on in someone else’s head?  People have their own desires and seek the easiest way of achieving these wants.  So, why doe bad things happen to good people?  God has given us the gift of free will and we are humans.  Humans are prone to making mistakes and if God protected us from everything in the world, we would never learn from our errors.  Even when events are beyond our control, God does not want us to suffer (Koch 93).  Suffering, as I see it, is what makes us human.  It is a part of living.

                Again, as humans, we cannot begin to fully understand God.  However, we should not try to fit God into our own image of Him, but rather shape our own concept to how God presents Himself to the world.  As Fr. Pat McCloskey states in his article in the Catholic Update, we must shape our image of God instead of dismissing Him when we become disillusioned when our naive concepts are not fulfilled (McCloskey 2).  McCloskey mentions having to become more realistic about or images of God.  God doesn’t abandon us or punishes us just because we don’t get what we want.  Instead, we should try to learn from our experiences on how God works and cares for us.

                However, God is portrayed many different ways in the Bible.  Some people have thought that the God of the Old Testament is different from the New Testament.  The Old Testament (OT) God is portrayed as an angry, vengeful God, one that dictates and commands rules.  The New Testament (NT) God is more caring, loving, and forgiving.  Are there really two Gods?  No.  Men wrote the OT many years ago in a different culture than the NT.  According to an article online, the customs were different and people needed rules, a way to establish themselves into a society, and something to believe in (“Is The God”).  The portrayal of God’s words by these people may have depicted God as a stringent God and they various interpretations by people have changed over time.  For instance, the story of Job has been told many times.  From one explanation, it depicts God who puts the message across of His power through anybody, no matter how faithful.  This interpretation shows God as a “don’t-mess-with-me-I-can-punish-anyone-I-want” type (Koch 90).  However, as I have always seen it, I have always thought that this story was about one man’s faith in God, despite the tribulations and suffering.  In the end, Job is relieved of his pain and rewarded by the loving God for his loyalty.

                Now, I know that I am no theologian and that I have not seen enough years to fully experience life with God.  However, in my seventeen years of life I have come to my own conclusions and beliefs about Him.  And although I do skip church from time to time, but to me, I feel that I can get in touch with God without the rituals and traditions.  However church, to me, isn’t about the customs; church is about the community and sharing a common interest with people who also love God.  I feel that I should not be contained to just one religion but I enjoy being a Catholic, despite what others have told me what religion I should be, such as a liberal Quaker (“Belief System Selector”).  I know that I have much to learn about Him and that I still cling to many of those “childhood” images of Him, but as I grow older I keep an open mind about what God really wants of us, how He loves us, and how I can get closer to Him in my life.

                So I pray, Lord, please forgive me for my wrong doings.  Give me the strength to forgive others, too, who have hurt me.  I pray that I have the patience and strength to overcome my burdens and obstacles in life.  Help me to live a righteous life in your name, despite the persecution by others.  I pray for all those who need your help:  the sick, the homeless, the poor, the suffering, and all those who are affected by them.  I pray that others may also show compassion for one another, to see beyond their differences and to acknowledge the person inside.  I pray that we learn to love and help one another.  I pray that others may learn to live in your love.  Lord, in this time of crisis, I pray for peace for the world.  Amen.