FUNDAMENTALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY
COURSE OUTLINE
Stanley E. Manahan
manahans@missouri.edu
Reference: Fundamentals of Environmental
Chemistry, Third Edition, Stanley E. Manahan, Taylor & Francis/CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL 2009
SYNOPSIS
The
course in Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry is designed for students who
have little or no knowledge of chemistry, but who need the basics of chemical
science for their trade, profession, or study curriculum, as well as for those
who want to have an understanding of the fundamentals of sustainable chemistry
in its crucial role in maintaining a livable planet.
The first ten units of the course are
designed to be a basic course in chemical science including the fundamentals of
organic chemistry and biochemistry. In presenting the fundamentals, every
effort is made to relate them to real-world examples from environmental
chemistry, green chemistry, and related areas while still maintaining brevity
and simplicity. The next 16 units
of the course deal with environmental chemistry, broadly defined to include
sustainability aspects, green chemistry, industrial ecology, and related
areas. These units are organized
on the basis of five environmental spheres including the hydrosphere,
atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere (water, air, earth, and life) as well as a
fifth sphere called the anthrosphere and consisting of that major part of the
environment made, modified, and operated by humans. To serve the large segment of readers for whom chemical
analysis is important, the last two units deal with analytical chemistry,
specifically environmental chemical analysis.
One of the unique features of the course is a
“mini-course” in chemistry presented in the first part of Unit 1 and consisting
of the most basic concepts and terms needed to really begin to understand
chemistry. To study chemistry, it is necessary to know a few essential things —
what an atom is, what is meant by elements, chemical formulas, chemical bonds,
molecular mass, and chemical reactions. With these terms defined in very basic
ways it is possible to go into more detail on chemical concepts without having
to assume — as many introductory chemistry courses do somewhat awkwardly — that
the reader does not know the meaning of these terms.
Unit 2 discusses matter largely on the basis
of its physical nature and behavior, introducing physical and chemical
properties, states of matter, the mole as a quantity of matter, and other ideas
required to visualize chemical substances as physical entities. Units 3–5 cover
the core of chemical knowledge constructed as a language in which elements and
the atoms of which they are composed (Unit 3) are presented as letters of an
alphabet, the compounds made up of elements (Unit 4) are analogous to words,
the reactions by which compounds are synthesized and changed (Unit 5) are like
sentences in the chemical language, and the mathematical aspects hold it all
together quantitatively. Units 6–8 constitute the remainder of material that is
usually regarded as essential material in general chemistry. Unit 9 presents a
basic coverage of organic chemistry. Although this topic is often omitted at
the beginning chemistry level, those who deal with the real world of
environmental pollution, hazardous wastes, agricultural science, and other
applied areas quickly realize that a rudimentary understanding of organic
chemistry is required. Unit 10 covers biological chemistry, an area essential
to understanding later material dealing with environmental and toxicological
chemistry.
Unit 11 is the first of three units centered
on the environmental chemistry of the hydrosphere. Unit 11 deals with water as a unique substance and how its
properties affect its role in the environment and as a green, sustainable
resource. Unit 12 discusses the role played by water in the environment as a
whole, how the hydrosphere interacts with the other environmental spheres, and
water pollution. Unit 13
emphasizes the sustainability of the water resource, water treatment, and uses
of water.
Unit 14 is the first of three units
pertaining to the atmosphere. This unit emphasizes the nature and composition
of the atmosphere and the vital protective function that it fulfills. Unit 15 deals with atmospheric
chemistry including chemical processes that lead to air pollution. Unit 16 pertains to the sustainability
of the atmosphere and the removal and prevention of air pollutants.
The geosphere is
introduced as a distinct environmental sphere in Unit 17 along with the basics
of geochemistry. Unit 18 deals
with the most important segment
of the geosphere — soil, and its role in food production. Unit 19 pertains to the preservation
and enhancement of the geosphere and discusses the geosphere as a resource of
essential minerals.
Along with Unit 10
(Biochemistry), Units 20 and 21 cover the biosphere as one of the distinct
spheres of the environment. Unit 20 is an overview of the biosphere and its
resources. Unit 21 deals
specifically with toxic substances and their importance in environmental
chemistry and green chemistry within a framework of toxicological chemistry.
The section on the
anthrosphere begins with Unit 22, which explains what the anthrosphere is, why
it is a distinct sphere of the environment, and how it relates to the other environmental spheres. The related areas of green chemistry and
industrial ecology, both key aspects of the anthrosphere, are covered in Unit
23. Unit 24 discusses the
potential of the anthrosphere to generate wastes, including hazardous wastes,
and the various classification of wastes. Unit 25 discusses sustainability of
the anthrosphere and how to deal with its wastes, including hazardous wastes.
As its title,
“Sustainable Energy: The Key to
Everything,” implies, Unit 26 is a coverage of the unique importance of energy
in sustainability. It discusses various energy sources and how the development
of sustainable energy is the single most important aspect of achieving
sustainability.
The last two units
of the course cover basics of analytical chemistry and its relevance to
environmental chemistry. Unit 27 is an overview of analytical chemistry and the
major categories of chemical analysis.
Unit 28 deals specifically with the analysis of materials in water, air,
wastes, and biological samples.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Fundamentals
of Environmental Chemistry
Third Edition, 2009
Unit 1 Introduction To Chemistry And Green Chemistry
1.1 If We Do Not Change Direction
1.2 The Essential Role Of Chemistry
1.3 Green Chemistry
1.4 A Mini-Course In Chemistry
1.5 The Building Blocks Of Matter
1.6. Chemical Bonds And Compounds
1.7. Chemical Reactions And Equations
1.8. Numbers In Chemistry: Exponential Notation
1.9 Significant Figures And Uncertainties In Numbers
1.10 Measurements And Systems Of Measurement
1.11 Units Of Mass
1.12 Units Of Length
1.13 Units Of Volume
1.14 Temperature, Heat, And Energy
1.15 Pressure
1.16 Units And Their Use In Calculations
Unit 2 Matter And Materials
2.1 What Is Matter And Why Does It Matter For Sustainability?
Sustainability And Green Chemistry?
2.2 Classification Of Matter
2.3 Quantity Of Matter: The Mole
2.4 Physical Properties Of Matter
2.5 States Of Matter
2.6 Gases
2.7 Liquids And Solutions
2.8 Solids
2.9 Thermal Properties
2.10 Separation And Characterization Of Matter
2.11 The Green Chemistry Of Matter
Unit 3 Atoms And Elements
3.1 Atoms And Elements
3.2 The Atomic Theory
3.3 Subatomic Particles
3.4 The Basic Structure Of The Atom
3.5 Development Of The Periodic Table
3.6 Hydrogen, The Simplest Atom
3.7 Helium, The First Atom With A Filled Electron Shell
3.8 Lithium, The First Atom With Both Inner And Outer Electrons
3.9 The Second Period, Elements 4-10
3.10 Elements 11-20, And Beyond
3.11 A More Detailed Look At Atomic Structure
3.12 Quantum And Wave Mechanical Models Of Electrons In Atoms
3.13 Energy Levels Of Atomic Orbitals
3.14 Shapes Of Atomic Orbitals
3.15 Electron Configuration
3.16 Electrons In The First 20 Elements
3.17 Electron Configurations And The Periodic Table
Unit 4 Chemical Bonds, Molecules And Compounds
4.1 Chemical Bonds And Compound Formation
4.2 Chemical Bonding And The Octet Rule
4.3 Ionic Bonding
4.4 Fundamentals Of Covalent Bonding
4.5 Covalent Bonds In Compounds
4.6 Some Other Aspects Of Covalent Bonding
4.7 Chemical Formulas Of Compounds
4.8 The Names Of Chemical Compounds
4.9 Acids, Bases, And Salts
Unit 5 Chemical Reactions, Equations, And Stoichiometry
5.1 The Sentences Of Chemistry
5.2 The Information In A Chemical Equation
5.3 Balancing Chemical Equations
5.4 Will A Reaction Occur?
5.5 How Fast Does A Reaction Go?
5.6 Classification Of Chemical Reactions
5.7 Quantitative Information From Chemical Reactions
5.8 What Is Stoichiometry And Why Is It Important?
Unit 6 Acids, Bases, And Salts
6.1 The Importance Of Acid, Bases, And Salts
6.2 The Nature Of Acids, Bases, And Salts
6.3 Conductance Of Electricity By Acids, Bases, And Salts In Solution
6.4 Dissociation Of Acids And Bases In Water
6.5 The Hydrogen Ion Concentration And Buffers
6.6 pH And The Relationship Between H+ Ion And OH- Ion Concentrations
6.7 Preparation Of Acids
6.8 Preparation Of Bases
6.9 Preparation Of Salts
6.10 Acid Salts And Basic Salts
6.11 Water Of Hydration
6.12 Names Of Acids, Bases, And Salts
Unit 7 Solutions And Solvents
7.1 What Are Solutions? Why Are They Important?
7.2 Solvents
7.3 Water—A Unique Solvent
7.4 The Solution Process And Solubility
7.5 Solution Concentrations
7.6 Standard Solutions And Titrations
7.7 Physical Properties Of Solutions
7.8 Solution Equilibria
7.9 Colloidal Suspensions
Unit 8 Chemistry And Electricity
8.1 Electrochemical Phenomena
8.2 Oxidation And Reduction
8.3 Oxidation-Reduction In Solution
8.4 The Dry Cell
8.5 Storage Batteries
8.6 Using Electricity To Make Chemical Reactions Occur
8.7 Electroplating
8.8 Fuel Cells
8.9 Solar Cells
8.10 Reaction Tendency
8.11 Effect Of Concentration: Nernst Equation
8.12 Potentiometry
8.13 Corrosion
Unit 9 Organic Chemistry
9.1. Organic Chemistry
9.2 Hydrocarbons
9.3. Organic Functional Groups And Classes of Organic Compounds
9.4 Synthetic Polymers
Unit 10 Biological Chemistry
10.1. Biochemistry
10.2. Biochemistry And The Cell
10.3. Proteins
10.4. Carbohydrates
10.5. Lipids
10.6. Enzymes
10.7. Nucleic Acids
10.8. Recombinant DNA And Genetic Engineering
10.9. Metabolic Processes
Unit 11 Water And The Hydrosphere
11.1. Introduction
11.2 The Fantastic Water Molecule And The Unique Properties Of Water
11.3. The Hydrosphere
11.4 Compartments Of The Hydrosphere Where Water Occurs
11.5 Aquatic Chemistry
11.6 Alkalinity And Acidity
11.7 Metal Ions And Calcium In Water
11.8 Oxidation-Reduction
11.9 Complexation And Chelation
11.10 Water Interactions With Other Phases
11.11 Aquatic Life
11.12 Bacteria
11.13 Microbially Mediated Elemental Transitions and Cycles
Unit 12 Environmental Chemistry And Pollution Of The Hydrosphere
12.1. Nature And Types Of Water Pollutants
12.2 Elemental Pollutants
12.3 Heavy Metals
12.4 Metalloids
12.5 Organically Bound Metals And Metalloids
12.6 Inorganic Species
12.7 Algal Nutrients And Eutrophication
12.8 Acidity, Alkalinity, And Salinity
12.9 Oxygen, Oxidants, And Reductants
12.10 Organic Pollutants
12.11 Pesticides In Water
12.12 Polychlorinated Biphenyls
12.13 Radionuclides In The Aquatic Environment
Unit 13 Sustaining The Hydrosphere: Keeping Water Green
13.1 Water Treatment And Water Use
13.2 Municipal Water Treatment
13.3 Treatment Of Water For Industrial Use
13.4 Sewage Treatment
13.5 Industrial Wastewater Treatment
13.6 Removal Of Solids
13.7 Removal Of Calcium And Other Metals
13.8 Removal Of Dissolved Organics
13.9 Removal Of Dissolved Inorganics
13.10 Membrane Processes And Reverse Osmosis For Water Purification
13.10 Sludge
13.11 Water Disinfection
13.12 Natural Water Purification Processes
13.13 Water—The Greenest Material: Reuse And Recycling
13.14 Water Conservation
Unit 14 The Atmosphere: A Protective Blanket Around Us
14.1 The Atmosphere
14.2 Importance Of The Atmosphere
14.3 Physical Characteristics Of The Atmosphere
14.4 Energy Transfer In The Atmosphere
14.5 Atmospheric Mass Transfer, Meteorology, and Weather
14.6 Inversions And Air Pollution
14.7 Global Climate And Microclimate
14.8 Atmospheric Oxygen
14.9 Atmospheric Nitrogen
14.11 Atmospheric Water
Unit 15 Atmospheric Chemistry
15.1. Chemical And Photochemical Reactions In The Atmosphere
15.2. Free Radicals
15.3 Acid-Base Reactions In The Atmosphere
15.4 Inorganic Species In The Atmosphere
15.5 Particles In The Atmosphere
15.6 The Composition Of Inorganic Particles
15.7 Carbon Oxides
15.8 Sulfur Dioxide Sources And The Sulfur Cycle
15.9 Nitrogen Oxides In The Atmosphere
15.10 Fluorine, Chlorine, And Their Gaseous Compounds
5.11 Hydrogen Sulfide, Carbonyl Sulfide And Carbon Disulfide
15.12 Organics In The Atmosphere
15.13 Organic Compounds From Natural Sources
15.14 Pollutant Hydrocarbons
16.4 Nonhydrocarbon Organic Compounds In The Atmosphere
Unit 16 Blue Skies For A Green Earth
16.1. Preserving The Atmosphere
16.2 Effects Of Particles
16.3 Control Of Particle Emissions
16.4 Control Of Carbon Monoxide Emissions
16.5 Carbon Dioxide And Global Warming
16.6 Green Science And Technology To Alleviate Global Warming
16.7 Reducing Sulfur Dioxide Pollution
16.8 Reducing Nitrogen Oxides Pollution
16.9. Acid Rain
16.10. Organic Air Pollution
16.11. Chlorofluorocarbons And Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
16.12. Green Solutions To Stratospheric Ozone Destruction
16.13. Photochemical Smog
16.14 The Smog-Forming Process
16.15 Harmful Effects Of Smog
16.16 Blue Sky As A Green Resource
Unit 17 The Geosphere And Geochemistry
17.1 The Geosphere
17.2 Branches Of Geology
17.3 Physical Form Of The Geosphere
17.4 The Nature Of Solids In The Geosphere
17.5 Geochemistry
17.6 Geosphere/Hydrosphere Interactions And The Formation Of Sediments
17.7 Clays
17.8 The Geosphere/Atmosphere Interface
17.9 The Geosphere/Biosphere Interface
17.10 The Geosphere And The Anthrosphere
Unit 18 Soil, Agriculture, And Food Production
18.1 Soil And Agriculture
18.2 Soil: Essential For Life, Key To Sustainability
18.3 Nature And Composition Of Soil
18.4 Acid-Base And Ion Exchange Reactions In Soils
18.5 Macronutrients In Soil
18.6 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, And Potassium In Soil
18.7 Micronutrients In Soil
18.8 Fertilizers
18.9 Soil Loss And Deterioration
18.10 Wastes And Pollutants In Soil
18.11 Saving The Land
18.12 Process Intensification In Agriculture
18.13 Sustainable Agricultural Management
18.14 Agroforestry
Unit 19 Sustaining The Geosphere
19.1. Managing The Geosphere
19.2 The Angry Earth
19.3 Earthquakes
19.4. Volcanoes
19.5 Volcanoes, Air Pollution, And The Geosphere
19.6 Destructive Land Surface Movement
19.7 The Vulnerable Coasts
19.8 Building On The Geosphere
19.9 Digging In The Dirt
19.10 Modifying The Geosphere To Manage Water
19.11 Water Pollution And The Geosphere
19.12 Effects Of Human Activities On The Geosphere
19.13 Waste Disposal And The Geosphere
19.14 Derelict Lands And Brownfields
19.15 Earth As A Source Of Essential Materials
Unit 20 The Biosphere And Biospheric Resources
20.1. Life And The Biosphere
20.2. Organisms And Green Science And Technology
20.3. Life Systems
20.4 Maintaining Species And Population
20.5 Human Effects On The Biosphere
20.6 From Biomaterials To Petroleum And Back Again
20.7 Types Of Biomaterials
20.8 Photosynthesis Productivity
20.9 Biomaterials And Their Processing
20.10 Biobased Feedstock
20.12 Glucose Feedstock
20.12 Cellulose Feedstock
20.13 Lignin Feedstock
20.14 Chemical Production By Biosynthesis
20.15 Direct Biosynthesis Of Polymers
20.16 Genetically Engineered Crops
Unit 21 Toxicological Chemistry
21.1 Introduction To Toxicology And Toxicological Chemistry
21.2 Dose-Response Relationships
21.3 Relative Toxicities
21.4 Reversibility And Sensitivity
21.5 Xenobiotic And Endogenous Substances
21.6 Toxicological Chemistry
21.7 Kinetic Phase And Dynamic Phase
21.8 Teratogenesis, Mutagenesis, Carcinogenesis, and Effects On The Immune
And Reproductive Systems
21.9 ATSDR Toxicological Profiles
21.10 Toxic Elements And Elemental Forms
21.11 Toxic Inorganic Compounds
21.12 Toxic Organometallic Compounds
21.13 Toxicological Chemistry Of Organic Compounds
Unit 22 The Anthrosphere And Technology
22.1. The Earth As Made By Humans
22.2. Constructs In The Anthrosphere
22.3. Anthrospheric Flows
22.4. Anthrospheric Conduits
22.5. Infrastructure
22.6. Transportation
22.7. The Communications Revolution
22.8. Technology And Engineering
22.9. Acquisition Of Raw Materials
22.10. Agriculture—The Most Basic Industry
22.11. Industries
22.12. Materials Science
22.13. Automation
22.14. Robotics
22.15. Computers And Technology
22.16. Thinking Small: Micromachines And Nanotechnology
22.17 High Tech
Unit 23 Green Chemistry And Industrial Ecology
23.1 Changing The Bad Old Ways
23.2 Green Chemistry
23.3 Reduction Of Risk: Hazard And Exposure
23.4 Waste Prevention And Green Chemistry
23.5 Green Chemistry And Synthetic Chemistry
23.6 Feedstocks
23.7 Reagents
23.8 Stoichiometric And Catalytic Reagents
23.9 Media And Solvents
23.10 Enhancing Reactions
23.11 Industrial Ecology
23.12 The Five Major Components Of An Industrial Ecosystem
23.13. Industrial Metabolism
23.14. Materials Flow And Recycling In An Industrial Ecosystem
23.15. The Kalundborg Industrial Ecosystem
23.16. Consideration Of Environmental Impacts In Industrial Ecology
23.17. Life Cycles: Expanding And Closing The Materials Loop
23.18. Life-Cycle Assessment
23.20. Consumable, Recyclable, And Service (Durable) Products
23.21. Design For Environment
23.22. Inherent Safety
Unit 24 The Anthrosphere And Wastes
24.1 Preserving And Enhancing The Anthrosphere
24.2 Rebuilding The Infrastructure
24.3 Wastes From The Anthrosphere
24.4 Classification Of Hazardous Substances And Wastes
24.5 Sources Of Wastes
24.6 Flammable And Combustible Substances
24.7 Reactive Substances
24.8 Corrosive Substances
24.9 Toxic Substances
24.10 Physical Forms And Segregation Of Wastes
24.11 Environmental Chemistry Of Hazardous Wastes
24.12 Transport, Effects, And Fates Of Hazardous Wastes
24.13 Hazardous Wastes And The Anthrosphere
24.14 Hazardous Wastes In The Geosphere
24.15 Hazardous Wastes In The Hydrosphere
24.16 Hazardous Wastes In The Atmosphere
24.17 Hazardous Wastes In The Biosphere
Unit 25 Green Chemistry And Industrial Ecology In Waste Management
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Waste Reduction And Minimization
25.3 Recycling
25.4 Physical Methods Of Waste Treatment
25.5 Chemical Treatment: An Overview
25.6 Photolytic Reactions
25.7 Thermal Treatment Methods
25.8 Biodegradation Of Wastes
25.9 Land Treatment And Composting
25.10 Preparation Of Wastes For Disposal
25.12 Leachate And Gas Emissions
25.13 In-Situ Treatment
Unit 26 Sustainable Energy: The Key To Everything
26.1. The Energy Problem
26.2. Nature Of Energy
26.3. Sources Of Energy Used In The Anthrosphere
26.4 Energy Devices And Conversions
26.5 Green Technology And Energy Conversion Efficiency
26.6 Energy Conservation And Renewable Energy Sources
26.7 Petroleum And Natural Gas
26.8 Coal
26.9 Carbon Sequestration For Fossil Fuel Utilization
26.10 Nuclear Energy
26.11 Geothermal Energy
26.12. The Sun: An Ideal, Renewable Energy Source
26.13 Energy From Moving Air And Moving Water
26.14 Biomass Energy
26.15 Hydrogen As A Means To Store And Utilize Energy
26.16 Combined Power Cycles
Unit 27 Fundamentals Of Analytical Chemistry
27.1 Nature And Importance Of Chemical Analysis
27.2 The Chemical Analysis Process
27.3 Major Categories Of Chemical Analysis
27.4 Error And Treatment Of Data
27.5 Gravimetric Analysis
27.6 Volumetric Analysis: Titration
27.6 Volumetric Analysis: Titration
27.8 Electrochemical Methods Of Analysis
27.9 Chromatography
27.10 Mass Spectrometry
27.11 Automated Analyses
27.12 Immunoassay Screening
Unit 28 Environmental And Xenobiotics Analysis
26.1 Introduction To Environmental Chemical Analysis
28.2 Analysis Of Water Samples
28.3 Classical Methods Of Water Analysis
28.4 Instrumental Methods Of Water Analysis
28.5 Analysis Of Wastes And Solids
28.6 Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
28.7 Atmospheric Monitoring
28.8 Analysis Of Biological Materials And Xenobiotics