In view of the purpose of Rule 8-2a, in equity (Rule 1-4), the player incurs the general penalty of loss of hole in match play or two strokes in stroke play.

If B's statement could reasonably have led A to think his next stroke had been conceded, in equity (Rule 1-4), A should replace his ball as near as possible to where it lay, without penalty.

Otherwise, A would incur a penalty stroke for lifting his ball without marking its position -- Rule 20-1 -- and he must replace his ball as near as possible to where it lay.

The player is entitled to relief from the second obstruction as provided in Rule 24-2b.

The competitor must replace the ball under penalty of one stroke -- Rule 18-2a. The competitor is not considered to have made a stroke.

Rule 24-1 specifically allows equipment of the players and the flagstick when attended, removed or held up to be moved when a ball is in motion even if doing so could influence the movement of a ball.

Other objects including loose impediments, other movable obstructions or golf balls that have not been lifted prior to the stroke may not be moved when a ball is in motion if doing so could influence the movement of a ball in motion.

Yes. The player incurred a penalty stroke under Rule 18-2a when he moved his ball by pressing on it. Since the original lie of the ball was altered when the ball was firmly pressed down, the player was obliged to proceed under Rule 20-3b. Since he did not do so, he lost the hole in match play and incurred a total penalty of two strokes in stroke play -- see penalty statement under Rule 18.

If a player's club strikes the ball more than once in the course of a stroke, the player must count the stroke and add a penalty stroke, making two strokes in all.

Each player was an outside agency in relation to the other.

Under Rule 19-1, Player "A" would have been obliged to play his ball as it lay, without penalty, if it had been found. Since it was not found, "A" must proceed under Rule 27-1, incurring a penalty of stroke and distance.

As the player has not touched the line of putt, he is not in breach of Rule 16-1a. However, the player is in breach of Rule 13-2 which prohibits improving the line of play by removing water. The player incurs a penalty of loss of hole in match play or two strokes in stroke play.

When any part of the ball overhangs the lip of the hole, the player is allowed enough time to reach the hole without unreasonable delay and an additional ten seconds to determine whether the ball is at rest. If by then the ball has not fallen into the hole, it is deemed to be at rest. If the ball subsequently falls into the hole, the player is deemed to have holed out with his last stroke and must add a penalty stroke to his score for the hole; otherwise, there is no penalty under this Rule.